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 BYZANTINE

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BYZANTINE

of patriarch, thereby proclaiming the ecclesiastical autonomy of Bulgaria. His ultimate aim became evident when he assumed the title of Tsar of the Bulgarians and Autocrat of the Romans. This dream, however, was not to be realized. Though Symeon had extended the boundaries of his domin- ions as far as the Adriatic Sea, though he held Adrian- ople for a time, and in 917 inflicted a crushing defeat on the Greeks, still, under his successor Peter (927- 69), Macedonia and Illyria shook off the Bulgarian and established a West Bulgarian State under the usurper Shishman and his successors. Even under these trying circumstances the policy of By- zantium was skilful: it recognized the Bulgarian patriarchate — thus widening the breach with Koine — but on the other hand lost no time in inciting the neighbouring peoples, the Magyars, Petchenegs, Cumani, and Croatian*, against the Bulgarians. The Russians, also, who in 941 threatened Constan- tinople for the second and last time, were stirred up against the Bulgarians. Hut soon it was recognized that the devil had been expelled with the help of Beelzebub. The grand Duke Svjatoslav of Kiev settled south of the Danube, and in 969 seized the old Bulgarian capital of Preslav for his residence. The Emperor John Zimisces now interfered. In 971 he captured Preslav and Silistria, but did not re- establish the Bulgarian State. Tsar Boris II was taken lo Constantinople and received as compensa- tion the title of M agister; the Bulgarian patriarchate was suppressed. There now remained only the West Bulgarian State under Shishman.

Basil II is Ajuioub, from MS. Psalter, End of X Century The work begun by John Zimisces was completed

by Basil II, "Slayer of Bulgarians". In three great. campaigns the Bulgarians were subjugated with monstrous cruelty. The work, however, was accom- plished. When, m 101 I, the emperor celebrated his victory with imposing ceremonies in the church of

Panagia at Athens (tl Id Parthenon), the Greek

Km [>ire st 1 on a height it was never again to reach,

Basil II was succeeded by his brother Constantine

VIII, who never distinguished himself, and by the daughters of the latter, Zoe and Theodora. The

government passed from the hands of the military party into those of high civilian officials, and soon defeat followed on defeat. Under heroes like Georgius Maniaces, and Harold Hardrada, it is true, headway was made against the most, various foes. But after 1021 Armenia, which had reached a high state of prosperity under the rule of the Bagratides, and had been annexed to Byzantine territory by Basil II and Constantine IX, gradually passed under the sway of the Seljuk Turks, and after 1041 Lower Italy was conquered by the Normans. This is the first appear- ance of the two foes who were slowly but surely to bring about the destruction of the empire, and the worst feature of their case was that the Greeks them- selves prepared the way for their future destroyers. As formerly Blessed Theodora and her successors had persecuted the heterodox Paulicians, who were the brave protectors of the frontier of Asia Minor, and whom John Zimisces later established near Philip- popolis, so now the Greek clergy were treating the Bulgarians and Armenians most harshly. The West- ern Church also at times wounded national feelings and sometimes provoked the hostility of individual nations by financial exactions. It would be difficult, however, to point out in the history of Rome such complete disregard of the obligations of the universal Church as was shown by the Patriarchs of Constan- tinople. It is not a matter for surprise, then, that the oppressed nations became more and more alien- ated from Byzantium anil finally welcomed hostile invasions as a sort of relief, though of course ulti- mately they found out their error. This turned out to be the case not only in Bulgaria, but also in North Syria, Armenia, and the eastern part of Asia Minor which contained a large Armenian population.

There was another circumstance that caused the Seljuk Turks to appear as liberators. In the course of the preceding centuries, a body of provincial nobility had been in process of formation in all parts of the empire. In Asia Minor — for conditions were not the same in all parts of the empire — this nobility acquired its predominance from its large landed possessions. And this, indeed, is reason for believing that no monetary system of economics existed in the older Byzantine Empire, and that the power of capitalism did not originate on its soil. Rich families invested their wealth in landed possessions, and the poorer population had to make way for them. This decline oi the peasantry was a grave menace to the empire, the military strength of which declined with the decline of popular independence. Moreover, this

monopolization Of the land tended to undermine a military institution -thai of feudal tenures. It is not known when this institution originated; possibly it was an inheritance from the Roman Empire, de- veloped afresh, during the struggles with the Arabs, in the form of cavalry fiefs on the frontiers of Asia Minor and Syria, and as naval liefs in the Cibyrrhseol tin urn. But in any case, the danger to this institu- tion was recognized at court, and attempts were made

to meet it. Romanus I, Lacapenus, descended from an Armenian family "I archons, seems to have been tin' first lo devise legislation against the further

extension of the landed interests. Other measures date from Constantine VII, Korphyrogenitus, P.o- manus II, and NicephorUS II, Phocas. Xieephorus

II. also, was descended from a Cappadocian family

of great landed proprietors, but this did not prevent him from vigorously continuing the policy of Ro- manus I. His stern piety— for the old warrior, after the death of his wife and his only son always wore a hair shut, never ate meat, and slept on the bare floor — did not prevent his opposing the further ex- tension of ecclesiastical property. I'or ecclesiastical, particularly monastic, holdings had gradually l>egun to ab 'iih the estates "I smaller land-holders. These

in' i ires against the Church were one' of the causes