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 BYZANTINE

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BYZANTINE

explains why the Iconoclastic emperors always found supporters in the higher ranks of the clergy. Thus it was that Leo III conducted his attack against the protesting popes through the Patriarch Anas- tasius. When Pope Gregory II refused in recognize the edict of 726, the emperor withdrew from his jurisdiction Sicily, Lower Italy, and [Uyria, and placed them under the Patriarch of Constantinople. Constantine Copronymus had similar support. Up- held by prelates in favour of a national Church, he .nice more, through the council of 754, prohibited tin' veneration of images. We know of the numerous martyrdoms caused by the execution of the decree, and how the Empress Irene, herself a friend of the 'image-worshippers", finally yielded. There soon followed tin' reaction of tic Iconoclasts under Leo V,

the Armenian, and the Phrygian dynasty, and at last tin- legal restoration of image-worship by Theodora. We have already seen thai this victory of the ortho- dox party, viewed from an ecclesiastico-political standpoint, was riot complete. The reason of this partial defeat lay not in the existence of a party

among the higher clergy favouring a national Church, l>ut in the fart that the orthodox party gradually lost their hold on the people. We know how the antagonism ol the Greeks to the Latins had gradually grown more intense. It was regarded as unpatriotic when Theodore of Studium and Ins friends so openly declared for Rome. The strength of this National- Church movement came into most perfect evidence

with tlie advent of the great Photius. His rise and

the fall of the Patriarch Ignatius «cre connected

with a shabby court intrigue, the Patriarch Ignatius having ventured to oppose the all-powerful Bardas during the reign of Michael 111 (842 67). Ai in t the proceedings oi Photius differed in no n from those of a common office-seeker. Hut by op- ■ the claims of Old Rome to Bulgarian obedience

lie suddenly gained immense popularity, and thus paved the way lor the ultimate separation of the hi I .aim ( 'hurdles. It was Boris (852-88), the Bulgarian Tsar, who stirred up the entire question. Willi the help of Si. (lenient, a disciple of Methodius, the Apostle of the Slavs, lie had introduced Christianity among his people; cm the occasion of his own baptism, the Emperoi Michael III was sponsor. Soon afterwards Boris tried to withdraw from the influence of East Louie, and enter into closer relations with ( >ld Koine. At the same tune the Holy See renewed its claims to the Illyrian obedience. Photius's answer was the fyict/jcXios 1-wutto\ti (circular letter) of 867, by which he soii-hl to establish the separation from (lid Koine Loth in ritual and in dogma. In spite of the many

vacillations of Byzantine politics between the par- tisans of Ignatius ami those of Photius during the next decades, this was the first decisive step towards the schism of 105 I

During this whole period the Bulgarians had

f'ven great trouble to the Byzantine Empire. The mperor Nicephorus I fell in battle against them, and his successors warded them off only with the I difficulty. Equally violent, were the wars

i the Saracens and the Slavs. There was

no second investment of the capital by the Syrian

Arahs. it is true, though on the other hand, in

sen. the city was hard pressed by the Varangian

Kos, I. ut all the more danger was to !*■ apprehended from the Arahs who had been expelled from Spain

ami had settled in Egypt in 815. In 826 they con- quered Crete, and about the seme time the \i al'- of Northern Africa began to settle in Sicily, a migratory movement which finally resulted in the complete loss of the island to the Byzantines. As once they had conic from Syria and Asia Minor. so now many Greek families migrated to Lower Italy and the Peloponnesus. The ( iiristianization

I a. n i

and hellenization of the Slavs was now begun, and soon produced rich fruits. It is difficult, as we have already said, to determine how great an ad- mixture of Slavic blood flows in the veins of the Greeks of to-day; on the other hand, it. is certain that the Slavs have left many traces of their laws and c u s f o ms. The agrarian law,

dating, possibly,

i em i he time of the Emperoi Leo

III, shows the strength of the Slavic influence on the develop- ment of the By- zantine agrarian system.

Ii remains to touch on the re- lations between t h e Byzantine Empire and the West during this

period. In the West, the Frankish nation had gradu- ally taken the lead of all other Germanic peoples. As we know, the relations of Byzantium with these na- tions were always somewhat unstable. One thing only had remained unchanged: the Byzantine rulers, as legitimate successors of the Roman emperors, had always maintained their claim to sovereignty over the Germanic peoples. For the most part this had Keen unconditionally admitted, as is evident from the coinage. At the time of the Empress Irene, however, a great change set in. The restoration of the Roman Empire of the Wist by Charlemagne (800) was the signal for a complete break with all previous traditions. The West stood now on the same footing as the East. As we know, this important step had been taken in full accord with the papacy. Historically, it is thus a part of the controversies which began with the withdrawal of Illyrian obe- dience, and culminated in the ^-yKwcXtos liriaroX-q of

Photius. The idea of a national imperial Church seemed to prevail in both East and West; to be sure this was only seemingly so, for the popes did not give up their universal supremacy, but soon began again to utilize politically their advantageous location

midway between East and West.

(4 ) Period oj Political Balance; S67-1057. Michael III Eudocia Ingerina Basil I

Leo VI

Alexander

Romanus I, (Lacapenus)

Constantine VII Helena Stephen Constantine

Romanus II Theophano Nicephorus II, Phocas

Basil II Constantine VIII Theodora John Zimisces

(1) Romanus III Argyrus

Maria (2; Michael IV

Michael V (3) Constantine IX,. Monomachu

The period of the highest development of Byzan- tine power was not dynastically the most fortunate