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 BYZANTINE

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BYZANTINE

proper from the time of Constantine's establishment of his capital. They base this opinion upon certain differences between the art remains of the first period of the Eastern Roman Empire and those of the Western Roman Empire, which differences they maintain are essential. Other scholars, such as Springer, Kraus, and Kuhn, hold these peculiarities to be unessential, since they find them here and there in Western countries as well, a fact which the former critics ascribe to Oriental influence. Breliier disa- grees with both views. He distinguishes between Oriental art and that specifically Byzantine; that is, between the art of Byzantium, or Constantinople, and that of her dependent provinces, Asia Minor, Syria, Persia, and Egypt. This is a fairly good solution of the "Byzantine question". But as it is difficult to distinguish in detail the combinations of old classic and Christian with Oriental art, we can only group together the principal characteristics of the new style and its materials, with a few examples.

Characteristics. — The introduction of Eastern court ceremonial by Constantine was accompanied in the domain of art by the appearance of extraor- dinary gorgeousness and pomp, expressed, however, with stiffness and formality. The power and pride of the new empire offered the means for great under- takings and gave the impulse to them. The Procon- nesian marble, found in the vicinity of the capital, and the stone obtained from other rich quarries provided the material, and, long before this era, the art of working in stone had reached a high state of development, especially in Asia Minor. Moreover, the East had been from ancient times the home of the minor arts. In Constantinople there flourished, along with the art of decorative sculpture, the arts of stone-carving, of working in metal and ivory, of ornamental bronze work, of enamelling, of weaving, and the art of miniature-painting. From classical and ancient Christian art Byzantine genius derived a correct combination of the ideal with truth to nature, harmonious unity along with precision in details, as well as the fondness for mosaics, frescoes, and pic- tures on panels, in opposition to the dislike of non- Christian and sectarian Orientals to pictorial repre- sentation. The iconoclasm of the eighth and ninth centuries wrought great destruction in the domain of art, but these outbreaks were successfully suppressed.

Examples. — In regard to the influence of the Byzantine style on architecture see Byzantine Architecture. As to the other arts a few examples may here be given. The church of St. Sophia was adorned in the sixth century with a splendour worthy of Solomon. The interior was sumptuously decorated with mosaics upon a golden background. These mosaics, it is true, with the exception of an "Adoration of Christ by the Emperor", were de- stroyed, but they were replaced later by others. Some of the walls were ornamented with designs of grape-vines with golden leaves. Pictures of animals decorated the walls of the portico. A silver choir- screen rose above pillars, in the capitals of which medallions of Christ, the Blessed Virgin, saints, and prophets win' carved. This is the so-called iconos- tasis. The altar was of gold inlaid with precious stones; the altar-cloth was (if brocaded silk in which were woven pictures of Christ, the prophets, and the apostles. The ambo, according to description, was brilliant with gold, silver, precious stones, and ivory. At Parenzo, in Istria, and at Bauit, in Egypt, superb mosaic pictorial ornamentation dating from the sixth century is still preserved. A gold cross deco- rated with pictures in hammered work was presented by Justin II to the church of St. Peter and is still pre erved at the Vatican. A number of ivory book- covers are also still in existence. The illuminated manuscripts of Rossano and Sinope date from the sixth century.

Influence. — As regards the influence exerted by Byzantine art in the sixth century there can be no doubt that the architecture of Ravenna, though affected by other Eastern influences, strongly re- minds us, in its splendid mosaics, of Constantinople. The Proconnesian capitals and other products of decorative art spread even more easily. Like Ravenna, Southern Italy and Gaul came under the influence of the East and Constantinople. Even more specifically Byzantine is African art. In Rome the traces of Byzantine art are more difficult to dis- cover than other Oriental influences. In the East itself pictorial art met with opposition, and decorative art came to the forefront. In general, however, after the rise of the Macedonian dynasty the Byzantine style gained the supremacy in all branches of art as well as in architecture. The Byzantine style spread in the East as well as in Northern Italy and Sicily. The numerous mosaic pictures, which are to be found every- where, still strove to imitate classi- cal models; their symbolism r e- minds us of the general symbolic tendency of early Christianity, and their form gradu- ally becomes more stiff and fixed. (Painter's Book of Mount Athos.) Purely Oriental, how- ever, was the dislike constant- ly increasing for sculpture in the round, and the preference for the flat ornamenta- tion in architec- ture. To the same Oriental in- fluence may be attributed the taste for costly and many-coloured stones and woven fabrics, for goldsmith-work, and enamel. For example, in the treasury of San Marco may be seen Byzantine reliquaries, ivory triptychs, chalices, costly fabrics, and specimens of pictorial art. Some are large and some small, but taken altogether they show how a church of the eleventh century was transformed into a veritable treasure- house. The same taste and the same characteristics of the art of Byzantium (Constantinople) have ever since maintained their supremacy in the East. For further bibliography see Byzantine Architecture.

Kondakoff, Hist, de lart byzantin rcnaW' n prmrivalement dans les miniatures (tr. Pans. LSNl'.-Wl \ Ii.km. /.. s buzantins (Paris, lMIL'l; MoMMl H. Hist, des arts anpliquft d V Industrie. I, s.vv. Les icoires; l.'orfivrerie; Tfxikh-Pm i an. Byzantine Architecture (London, 1843-64); Lethahy-Swain- bon. The Church of St. Sophia (London, New York. Isi'-L; Frothdjqham, Byxmtuu Artists in Italy in Am. Journal of

ArchiroloQV I lS!)4-!l."i ': M\.Phhiso\, The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Kt : II ■ /■'• L892 . VII; Westwood. Fictile

Ivories in Ou South Kensington Museum (London, 1886); Schultz-Barnsi i i VI, ..,is and the Dependent Monastery of St. Xicolatrin-lhe-fields war Skripou (London. [90] I; \ La palad'oro di S, Mara.. Eng. and Fr. irs. (Venice Cahieb and Martin, Milanucs d'archeologic [Paris, 1847-56.) G. Gietmann.

Byzantine Empire. — The ancient Roman Empire having been divided into two parts, an Eastern and a Western, the Eastern remained subject to succes- sors of Constantine, whose capital was at Byzantium or Constantinople. The term Byzantine is therefore,

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