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 BRAHMIN

730

BKAHMINISM

Portugal, in the ciinl province of Tras-os-Montes, and lies between 2° and 3° 3' of longitude west of the meridian of Madrid, 41° 20' and 42° of north latitude. It is bounded on the north by the Dioceses of Astorga and Orense, on the east by those of Salamanca and Zamora, on the south by that of Lamego, and on the west by the Archdiocese of Braga. The ci\'il province is bounded on the north and east by the frontier of Spain comprising portions of the Prov- inces of Salamanca, Zamora, Leon, and Orense. The greater part of the territory of this diocese is imdulating and mountainous and is traversed by several rivers, which, rising in the Sierras de Sanabria and the Sierra Seca y Segimdera, flow from north to south, emptying finally into the river Diiero. The climate in general is cold especially in the moim- tainous region. The southern part and the banks of some rivers and the level tracts of land, such as the one in which Bragan^a is situated, are fertile, but the rest is improductive of cereals, althotigh there are broad tracts of land that pasture large herds of cattle which supply a great part of Portugal and Spain with meat.

This see is comparatively modern. It was erected by Pope Paul III in the town of Miranda bordering on Spain, its territory' being taken from the Arch- diocese of Braga, but Clement XIV in 1770 trans- ferred it to Bragan^a, from which the name Bragan^a- Miranda is derived. The diocese is a suffragan of Braga. The city of Bragan^a, which is the capital of the province of Tras-os-Montes, is situated in a delightful valley near the confluence of the rivers Pervenza and Sabor. The cathedral, dedicated to the Annunciation, is one of the prominent buildings of the city. It has a very large chapter composed of the dean, nine canons, including the theologian, six beneficed clergj', eight chaplains, and six clerics. The episcopal household receives 1,166 florins from the Government for its support. The episcopal palace and the diocesan seminary for the education of students for the priesthood are large and spacious. Besides the cathedral there is another church which has collegiate rank, and throughout the diocese there are schools and classes for instruction in Christian doctrine. There is a hospital and a Monte de piedad, and before the secularization there were three re- ligious communities, one of men and two of women. The city of Bragan^a is fortified, having a citadel or small fortress for its defence. The reigning house of Portugal is descended from the Dukes of Braganga and has occupied the throne of Portugal since the separation of Spain and Portugal in the time of Philip IV.

MoRERl, Le grand diet. hist.

TiRso L6pez.

Brahmin. See BRAHinmsM.

Brahminism. — By Brahminism is meant the com- plex religious and social system which grew out of the polytheistic nature-worship of the ancient Aryan conquerors of Northern India, and came, with the spread of their dominion, to be extended over the whole country-, maintaining itself, not without pro- found modifications, down to the present day. In its intricate modern phases it is generally kno^^Ti as Hinduism.

I. Br.^hmin Texts. — Our knowledge of Brahmin- ism in its earlier stages is derived from its primitive sacred books, originally oral compositions, belonging to the period between 1500-400 B. c. First of all, there are the four Vedas (veda means wisdom) dating from 1.500 to 800 B. c, and consisting (1) of a col- lection of ancient hymns (riks), the so-called Rig- Veda, in praise of the many gods; (2) of the Sama- Veda, compiled from parts of the Rig-Veda as a song service for the .soma-sacrifice; (3) of the Yajur-Veda, a liturgy composed partly of ancient hjTnns and

partly of other prayers and benedictions for use in the various forms of sacrifice; and (4) of the Atharva- Veda, a collection of popular exorcisms and magical incantations largely inherited from primitive Arj'an days.

Next in order are the Brahmanas (about 1000- 600 B. c). They are a series of verbose and mis- cellaneous explanations of the texts, rites, and cus- toms found in each of the four Vedas, composed expressly for the use of the Bralimins, or priests. These are followed (800-500 b. c.) by the so-called Upanishads, concerned chiefly with pantheistic speculations on the nature of deity and the end of man; and lastly, by the Sutras (60CM00 b. c). which are compendious guides to the proper observance of rites and customs. The most important are the Grhya-Sutras, or house-guides, treating of domestic rites, and the Dharma-Sutras, or law-guides, which were manuals of religious and social customs. Being meant for lajTnan as well as priest, they reflect the popular, practical side of Braluninism, whereas the Brahmanas and Upanishads show us the religion on its priestly, spectilative side. Closely related to the law-guides is the^ justly famed metrical treati.se, Manava-Dharma-Sastra, known in English as the Laws of Manu. It belongs probably to the fifth cen- tury B. c. These, together with the two sacred epics of a later age, the " Ramayana " and the " Maha- bharata," embrace what is most important in sacred Brahmin literature.

II. Early Brahminism or Vedism. — ^The re- ligion of the Vedic period proper was comparatively simple. It consisted in the wor.ship of many deities, great and small, the personified forces of nature. Prominent among these were Varuna, the all-em- bracing heaven, maker and lord of all things and up- holder of the moral law; the sun-god, variously known as Surj'a, the enemy of darkness and bringer of bless- ings, as Pushan the nourisher, as Mitra the omniscient friend of the good, and the avenger of deceit, as Savitar the enlivener, arousing men to daily acti\nty, and as Vishnu, said to have measured the earth in three strides and to have given the rich pastures to mortals; the god of the air, Indra, like Mars, also, the mighty god of war, who set free from the cloud- serpent Ahi (orVritra), the quickening rain; Rudra, later known as Siva, the blessed one, the god of the destructive thunderstorm, an object of dread to evil- doers, but a friend to the good; Agni, the fire-god, the friend and benefactor of men, dwelling on their hearths and bearing to the gods their prayers and sacrificial offerings; boma, the god of that mysterious plant whose inebriating juice was so dear to the gods and to man, warding off disease, imparting strength and securing immortality.

There were no temples at this early period. On a small mound of earth or of stones the offering was made to the gods, often by the head of the family, but in the more important and complicated sacrifices by the priest, or Brahmin, in union with the house- holder. The object of every sacrifice was to supply strengthening food to the gods and to secure blessings in return. Human victims, though rare, were not wholly unknown, but animal victims were at this period in daily use. First in importance was the horse, then the ox or cow, the sheep, and the goat. Offerings of clarified butter, rice, wheat, and other kinds of grain were also verj' common. But dearer to the gods than any of these gifts, and rivalling the horse-sacrifice in solemnity, was the offering of the inebriating juice of the "Soma-plant, the so-called Soma-sacrifice. Hj-mns of praise and petitions, chiefly for the good things of life, children, health, wealth, and success in undertakings, accompanied these sacrificial offerings. But the higher needs of the soul were not forgotten. In the hjTnns to Varuna, Mitra, and other gods there are striking texts ex-