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VONDEL

Voluspft, "the wisdom of the prophetess", the most famous mythological poem of the Elder Edda", relates in the form of a vision the beginning and end of all things and tells of the gods and their doom. This vision is attributed to a Volva, or wise woman, to whom is assigned a role similar to that of the Sibyl in early Christian literature. Odhin himself is made to summon the prophetess from her grave that she may give him answer; her prophecy is addressed to all men. She is of the race of giants and her memory goes back to the daj-s when there was neither earth nor heaven, but only ginnunga gap, "the yawning, chasm". Odhin and his brothers created the world, the dwarfs, and finally men. There was a golden age for the gods which is ended when they kill the maid GuUveig and thus provoke war with her kin, the giants, who are victorious. A compact is made, but broken by the gods, who thereby incur guilt and invite their doom. This destruction of the gods, the ragnarok, is depicted with graphic power. Dire portents forebode the catastrophe; BaldiT, the inno- cent god, is treacherously slain through the machina- tions of the wicked Loki, civil war and crime reign supreme, the powers of ruin, the giants, the wolf Fenrir, the Midgard-serpent, the sons of Muspel, and the fire-giant Surtr gather for the final onslaught. Odhin, Thor, and FrejT are killed. The sun and the stars fall from heaven, fire destroys the earth which slips into the sea. But a rejuvenated world emerges from the ruins and a new golden age is at hand. Bal- der retiu^ns and in the golden hall Ciimle the people dwell in unending happiness. From above comes the all-powerful god of judgment, while Nidhogg, the evil dragon, comes from below and bears away the corpses.

The eUiptic and disjointed manner in which the events are narrated makes it difficult to interpret accurately some of the most important points in connexion with this poem, which is one of our chief sources of knowledge concerning the ancient Germanic cosmogony. There has been much difference of opinion among scholars, particularly as regards the question of foreign and Christian influence. It is now conceded that the poem cannot be dated farther back than the middle of the tenth century and that it probably originated in Iceland. If so, Christian influence is not only possible, but certain; for such influence was bound to come in through contact of Icelanders with the Celts and Anglo-Saxons. To a.ssume that the poem presents us the cosmogonic beliefs of the Icelandic people of the tenth century is a grave error. The anonymous author handled the ancient myths with considerable freedom and inde- pendence. While the subject-matter is prevaihngly pagan, the point of view has assumed a Christian colouring and there are undoubted Christian reminis- cences. Such seem to be the portents announcing Tagnnroh and the rejuvenation of the world. The coming of the great un-named god reflects the victo- rious advance of the new religion, Christianity, which in the poet's time was displacing the old beliefs. The figure of Balder and the importance attached to his death, show the influence of the suffering Christ, the guiltless victim. The "Voluspd," does not present to us Teutonic mythology in its ancient or purely pagan form, but a cosmogony which, while funda- mentally pagan, h:is been subject to much foreign influence. Only the extent of this influence is still a m.atter of di.spute.

For editions and commeotaric* consult the article on the Edda. Sec also .Mil lenhoff, Detasche AUertumskunde ,\ (Berlin, 1870-1900). I »q.: HoFFOBY. Eddasluditn (Berlin, LSSfl), 17 sq., 73 sq.. II'I sq.: Hec^lf.r. Voluspo, Dif WeinnaounQ tier Seherin (Berlin. 1SS7): Bano, Voluspaa oa de Sibullinske Orakler (Chris- tiania. 1879); Mfter, Votiixpd (Berlin. 18.S9): Idem, Dif fdduche Kntmngmif (Kreiburg, 1801); nETTER, /JiV Vulunp^ (Vienna, IS99), with comments and explan3tor\' remarks. C^^onsult also KooK in Grundrits der germaniKhen Phxlologie, II, .57982.

Arthur F. J. Remv.

Vondel, Joost van Den, Nctherland poet and convert, b. at Cologne, 17 Nov., 1587, of parents whose residence was originally at Antwerp; d. 5 Feb., 1(379. Of his early youth nothing is known. In his eighth or ninth year, he went with hi.s father, Joost, and his mother, Sara Kraiicn, td .Vnistcniiim, where his father engaged

Joost van den Vondel

the stocking trade. His first known poem dates from 1605, when he was seventeen years old. This and some other poems of his youth exhibit the qualities of the older rhetorical style of poetrv. On 20 Nov., IfilO, Vondel marrietl Mayken de \\o\S. He then began to devote himself to classical studies, as is shown by his poem "Jeruzalem verwoest" (Jeru- salem Destroyed), which appeared in 1620. Even at this date Vondel had won the friend- ship of men hke Pers, Roemer Virscher, Hooft, the Baecks, Laurens Reael, Plemp, Mostaert, C. Huy- gens, and Seriverins. This gave Vondel a new world- view and a wider horizon. It was probably between 1620 and 1630 that he dedicated his celebrated poem "De Kruisbergh" (Calvary) to his young wife. His "Palamedes" and "De Amsteldamsche Hecuba" date from the year 1625. Immediately after this, in 1626, appeared "De Roskam" and, in 1631, "Jaer- gitijde van wijlen Heer Joan van Oldenbaerneveld " and the "Decretum horribile". During this same period Vondel made the acquaintance of Hugo de Groot, to whom he dedicated his " Wellekomst". Between 1631 and 1640 his fame constantly increased. During that time he worked steadily on his "Con- stantijn". In 1635 appeared "Joseph in't Hof", and shortly after "Gijsbrecht van Aemstel"; in 1639 "De Maeghden". At this time his tragedies follow one another with a.stonishing rapidity: in November, 1(3.39, "De Gebroeders"; January, 1640, "Joseph in Egypten"; 4 March, 1640, "Joseph in Dothan".

The years 1640-1 were not very fruitful in poems. Vondel was pondering on higher things. Previous to this time the Protestant preachers thought they perceived in him papal tendencies. In 1641 he openly joined the Cathohc Church, and thereafter devoted his talents and pen to her service. The "Littera; annua;" of the Jesuits (1641) prove Vondel to have been converted by the Fathers of Krijtberg, and it is reasonably sure that it was Father Petrus Laurentius who brought about his conversion. His daughter Anna had preceded him into the Church and his nephew Peter Vondel followed in 1643. He remained grateful to theSociety of Jesus and sang its praises in many beautiful poems. His conversion brought him many new friends and caused him to lose none of his old ones. The first fruit from the pen of the Catholic Vondel was the drama "Peter en Pauwels", which hits for its subject-matter the fotuxling of the Church (l(i41). In 1642 he wrote a no less Catholic poem, "De Brieven der Heilige Maeghden, Martclaressen", with an "Opdiacht aan de H. Maeght " (Dedication to the Ble.s.sed Virgin). In 1645 appeared the " Altaar- geheimenis.sen" (My.steries of the Altar), in 1646, "Maria Stuart of gemartelde Majestcit" (Mary