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501

VOLK

of the evangelical counsels is in itself, open to aU, and preferable for all, l)u( without being directly or iiiiiirectly obhgalory. In exceptional cases the olili^ialion may exist as the consequence of a vow or of a Divine order, or of the iniprobabihty (which is very rare) of otherwise finding salvation. More frequently reiusons of prudence, arising from the character and habits of the persons concerned, make it unadvisable that he should choose what is in itself the best part, or duties of fihal piety or justice may make it impos- sible. For the reasons given above we cannot accept the definition of Lessius; "Vocation is an affection, an inward force which makes a man feel impelled to enter the religious state, or some other state of fife" (De statu vitae deUgendo, n. 56). This feehng is not necessary, and is not to be trusted without reserve, though it may help to decide the kind of order which would best suit us. Nor can we admit the principle adopted by St. Alphonsus: that God determines for every man his state of life (On the choice of a state of life). Cornelius a Lapide, on whose authority St. Alphonsus incorrectly grounds his argument, says, on the contrary, that God often refrains from indicating any preference but that which results from the unequal excellence of honourable conditions. And in the celebrated passage "every one hath his proper gift from God" (I Cor., vii,7) St. Paul does not intend to indicate any particular profession as a gift of God, but he makes use of a general expression to imply that the unequal dispensation of graces explains the diver- sity of objects offered for our clioice like the diversity of virtues. We agree with Liguori when he declares that wlioever, being free from impediment and actu- ated by a right intention, is received by the superior is called to the religious life. See also St. Francis of Sales, Epistle 742 (Paris, ed. 1833). The rigourist influences to which St. Al])honsus was subjected in his youth explain the severity which led him to say that a person's eternal salvation chiefly depended on this choice of a state of fife conformable to the Divine election. If this were the case, God, who is infinitely good, would make His will known to every man in a way which could not be misunderstood.

The opinion advocated in this article is corroborated by the favourable decision of the Commis-sion of Cardinals (20 June, 1912). appointed to examine the work of Canon Joseph Lahitton, ha vocation sacerdotale (Paris, 1909) ; the decision of the cardinals lias been fully approved by the pope. Slater, Manual of Moral 7/ ' .' ;, X- w York, 1909); Berthier, a missionary of La .- ! 1 111! down rules similar to the above in his book,

/' ' I /> chrhienne et de la vocation d'apris les Docleurs

'I, I I, <. - /., Ihlologiens (4th ed., Paris, 1897) ; Eng. tr. Chris- ti'in Ltji ami Vocation (New York, 1879); Damanet, Choice of a male o/ Life (Dublin, 1880). Aa an instance of excessive severity see Habert, Theol. dogmat, et mor.: De sacramenU) ordinis, Pt. 3, i, Bee. 2. Articles in favour of vocation by attraction have ap- peared in Revue pratique et apoloffitique, X; see loc. cit., XII, 558, for list of publications in reply to Lahitton.

A. Vermeersch.

Vogler, George Joseph, theorist, composer, and organist, b. at Wurzburg, 15 June, 1749, d. at Darmstadt, 6 May, 1814. He was the son of a violin maker, and was educated at the Jesuit schools of his native city and Bamberg. Of an ambitious and restless disposition, Vogler after six weeks aban- doned the study of theory under Padre Martini at Bologna (1706-84) and sought the advice of Fran- cesco Antonio Vallotti in Padua (1697-1780); with Vallotti he spent six months. After these short periods of study he formulated a theoretical system of his owTi, much to the displeasure of his teachers. Having finished his theological studies in Rome he wa-s ordained and, in 177.5, returned to Mannheim where he became court chaplain and establi.shed a school. While at Mannheim he pubhshed treatises on .singing, theorj-, and composition which aroused criticism on account of their iconoclastic tendencies. He invented a portable organ-orchestrion, built on a simplified plan, and travelled with it all over Europe, everywhere creating interest on account of his vir-

tuosity and sensational means of attracting attention. Vogl(>r comjiosed a large quantity of music, sacred as well its i)rofane, jjracticaliy all of which is now forgotten. In 1807 he settled down and became court conductor at Darmstadt, where he founded a school of music. His most lasting title to fame is the fact that C. M. von Weber and Giacomo Meyerbeer were his pupils.

Mendel, Musikali&che Conversationslexikon {Berlin, 1879); RiEMANN, Kleine Musikgesch. (Leipzig, 1909); Brendel. Gesch. der Musik (Leipzig, 1875). JOSEPH OttEN.

Vogiie, Eugi;ne-Melchior, Vicomte de, critic, novehst, and historian, b. at K'ice, 25 Feb., 1848; d. in Paris, 24 Feb., 1910. He was descended from an illustrious family of Vivarais province which gave many prominent men to the Church and the army in the Kliddle Ages. He made his Classical studies at Versailles and studied law at Grenoble. When the Franco-Prussian war broke out, he enlisted as a pri- vate, and behaved so bravely that he was awarded the military medal. After the war, he entered the diplo- matic career. He was successively sent as an at- tach6 of embassy to Constantinople (1873), to Egypt (1875), and to St. Petersburg. In 1878 he married a Russian lad}'. Miss Annenkof. Four years later he resigned his official position and devoted his entire time to literature, except for a short period, from 1893 to 1896, when he represented the Department of Ardeche in the Chamber of Deputies. He was elected to the French Academy in 1888. He was a most ver- satile wTiter, contributing with the same ability arti- cles on philosophical, historical, literary, religious, or artistic subjects. Current events interested him par- ticularly and prompted him to write valuable essays, such as "Questions contemporaines" (1891), "Re- gards historiques et litt(5raires" (1892); "Heures d'histoire" (1893); "Devant le siMe" (1896); "Sous I'horizon" (1904). He achieved a great rep- utation by attracting the attention of the French pub- lic to the Russian novelists, who were hardly known in France at that time. His "Roman Russe" (1886) had a considerable influence on the evolution of the French novel by drawing attention to the sympathy for the poor people expressed by Dostoiewsky and Tolstoi. He also wTote a few novels. In all his writings he never failed to emphasize his attachment to his religious faith, the most conspicuous acknowl- edgment of which is his pamphlet on "Les Affaires de Rome" (1894). V^inong his other books must be mentioned: "S>Tie, Palestine, Mont .\thos; Voyage au Pays du Pass6" (Paris, 1876); "Histoires orien- t.ales, chez les pharaons" (1879); "Les portraits du siecle" (1883); "Le fils de Pierre le Grand"; "Ma- zeppa" (1884); "Histoire d'hiver" (1885); "Sou- venirs et visions" (1887); "Portrait du Louvre" (1888); "Remarques sur I'exposition du cente- naire" (1889); "Le manteau de Joseph 01(5onine" (1890) ; "Jean d'Agreve" (1897) ; " Histoire et po^sie " (1898); "Les morts qui parlent" (1899); "Le rappel des ombres" (1900); "Pages d'histoire" (1902); "Le mattre de la mer" (1903).

Annales politiques et lUterairen, 3 April. 1910 (articles by P. BouRGET, DocMic. etc.) : DE Reonier, DincouTs de reception d rAcadlmie (Paris. 1912).

Lonis N. Delamarre.

Volk, Wilhelm (pseudonym, Ludwig Clarus), b. at Halberstadt 25 Jan., 1804; d. at Erfurt 17 March, 1869. He came from a Lutheran family; his father was a lawyer. After going to school at Halber- stadt and Magdeburg, he studied from 1823 law at the Universities of Gottingen and Berlin. In 1826 he became an au.scultator at Magdeburg, and in 1829 a referendar. In 1832 he m.ade the acquaintance at Berlin of the law-professor George Phillips, who was later a convert to (^athohcism. Volk kept up their friendship by repeated visits to Munich. In this city he also formed friendships with Clemens Bren-