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 UNIVERSITIES

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UNIVERSITIES

to the other universities, the Reformation did serious injury. Their constitution and organization were upset by ecclesiastical discord; their income was sadly reduced by the rapacity of the nobles who appropri- ated the hon's share of the patrimony of the Church. From a greatly diminished income they had to up- hold the stipends of the paiishes which belonged to them. This was necessarily accompanied by a reduc- tion of the salaries of the professors, for which certain grants by successive administrations made small but inadequate amends. The attendance of students was also injuriously affected " (Kerr, p. 108). Though various schemes of reform were proposed, especially by Knox, they proved ineffectual owing to the tumults about religion and the alternations between presby- tery and episcopacy. The universities became insti- tutions of the state in 1690 and reUgious tests were enforced for all teachers and ofiBcials. Curricula and organization, however, retained for a long time their medieval features. During the seventeenth and eigh- teenth centuries, various modifications were intro- duced in the courses of study ; new chairs were founded and the financial condition improved.

At Paris this period witnessed the long struggle between the university and the Jesuits (see Society OF Jesu.s: History; France), the inroads of Galli- canism and Jansenism, and the substitution of royal for papal supremacy. As far back as 1475, Charles VII had placed the university under the jurisdiction of the Parlement; by the end of the sixteenth century the secularization was complete. If RicheUeu, by rebuilding the Sorbonne, and Mazarin, by establish- ing the College des Quatre-Nations, enhanced the outward splendour of the university, they did not endow it with vitality sufficient to check the new philosophical movement which culminated in the work of the Encyclopedists and the Revolution. In 1793 the university was suppressed and with it all the other universities of France. Napoleon I reor- ganized them as faculties under the one imperial university situated at Paris; and this arrangement continued until, in 1896, the faculties were restored to university rank.

IV. Modern Period. — In Germany, the eigh- teenth century brought decided changes which some authors (Paulsen) regard as the origin of the modern university. From HaUe, founded in 1694, Christian WoliT's rationalistic philosophy spread to all the Protestant universities, and from Gottingen (1737) the new Humanism, especially the study of Greek. Freedom of research became the characteristic feature of the university; the systematic lecture replaced the exposition of texts; the seminar exercises supplanted the disputation; and German was used instead of Latin as the vehicle of instruction. The foundation of the University of Berlin (1800) was another advance in the way of free scientific culture. Philosophy became the leading subject of study. Next in impor- tance was philology, Classical, Romance, and Ger- man. The development of the historical method and its application in all lines of research are among the principal achievements of the nineteenth century. In the natural sciences laboratory training was recog- nized as indispensable, and the study of medicine was put on a new basis by improved methods of investi- gation. Specialized research with productive scholar- ship, rather than aci-uiiuilation of knowledge, was held up as the aim of university work. As a result the departments of science multiphed and in each the number of courses rapidly increa.sed. Th's was the case especially in the faculty of philosophy, which came to include practically everything that did not belong to theology, medicine, or law. The B.A. degree disappeared, the M.A. was merged with the doctorate in philosophy, and this had its chief signif- icance as a requisite for teaching, (ireat iniiinrtanie was attached to the preparation of teachers for the

schools and gymnasia, while in the university itself, the recruiting of professors was provided for by the system of Privaldozcnls, i. e. instructors who have the privilege of teaching but no official duties or salaries. These instructors often teach at various universities before being promoted to a professorship, and thus acquire a wide experience as well as an acquaintance with conditions in different parts of the empire. The students also are encouraged to pass from one university to another. They no longer hve in col- leges, nor are they exempt from municipal control and mihtary ser\'ice. Most of them, however, are members of some Verein or Verbindung which develops the social spirit, though it often encom-ages duelling, drinking, and other practices hardly conducive to moral or intellectual advance.

In England and Scotland the nineteenth century was marked by numerous and far-reaching changes. A succession of statutes revised the .system of exam- inations and degrees; religious tests were abolished at the English univer.sities in 1871, at the Scottish in 1892; many of the traditional oaths disappeared, and the restrictions imposed by the EUzabethan code were in large part removed. The tendency of legislation (Acts of 1854, 1856, 1877) was in line with the reforms advocated by the Royal Commission in 1852, i. e. "the restoration in its integrity of the ancient super- vision of the university over the studies of its members by the enlargement of its professorial system, by the addition of such supplementary appliances to that system as may obviate the vmdue encroachments of that of private tuition . . . the removal of all restrictions upon elections to fellowships and scholar- ships ... an adequate contribution from the cor- porate funds of the several colleges towards rendering the course of pubUc teaching, as carried on by the university itself, more efficient and complete". This movement toward a revival of the authority of the university has been furthered by Lord Curzon in his "Principles and Methods of LIniversity Reform" (1909). The monopoly of higher education so long enjoyed by Oxford and Cambridge was broken by the creation of new universities; Durham was established in 1832, and the I'niversity of London, founded in 1825 and chartered as an examining and degree-con- ferring institution in 1838, was reorganized on a broader basis in 1889. The university extension movement, inaugurated at Cambridge in 1867, was taken up by Oxford also. Women were admitted to examinations and degrees at London in 1878, Cam- bridge in 1881, and Oxford in 1884. The Scottish universities were remodelled in 1858 and in 1889; the system of studies and degrees was reorganized and greater uniformity in government was secured. At Aberdeen and Glasgow, howe\er, the rector is still elected by the matriculated students, who are divided into four nations as in the Middle Ages. Women were admitted as students in 1892.

For the earliest foundations in America see Univer- sities, Sp.iNiSH-.'VMERic.^N. In the United States the oldest universities grew out of colleges modelled on those of England: Harvard (1636), Yale (1701), Princeton (1726), Washington and Lee (1749), L'^niversity of Pennsylvania (1751), King's, i. e. Columbia (1754), Brown (1764). The first step towards university instruction was the addition of graduate studies (lursued by resident students (men- tioned at Harvard towards the end of the eighteenth century). During the first quarter of the nineteenth century, American students began to study in Ger- many and they naturally, on returning to their own country, sought to introduce elements from the Ger- man universities. It was not, however, until 1861 that the doctorate in philosophy was conferred f\'ale); since that time, the universities have developed rapidly but not according to any imiforni plan of organization. In all these institutions there is a