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 TUSCANY

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TUSCANY

financial administration, and sufficient military strength. Art, literature, and learning also enjoyed a new era of prosperity during his reign. After long negotiations his son Francesco 1 (1574-87) received in 1576 from the Emperor Maximilian the confirmation of the grand ducal title which had been refused his father. In his foreign policy Francesco was depend- ent on the Habsburg dynasty. During his weak reign the power was in the hands of women and favoiu-ites, and the corruption of the nobility and officials gained ground again, while the discontent of (he common people was increased by heavy taxes. After the death of his first wife the grand duke married his mistress, the Venetian Bianca Capello. As he had only daughters, one of whom was the French queen, Maria de Medici, and the attempt to substitute an illegitimate son failed, he was followed by his brother Cardinal Ferdinand (1587-1605), who has been accused without any historical proof of poisoning his brother and sister-in-law.

In foreign policy Ferdinand made himself independ- ent of the emperor and Sjiain and as an opponent of the preponderance of the Haljsburgs supported the French King Henry IV. Henry's return to the Catholic Church was largely tlue to Ferdinand's influ- ence. Ferdinand benefited his duchy by an excellent administration and large public works, e. g. the draining of the Mianatales and the Maremma of Siena, the construction of the port of Leghorn, etc. He re-estabUshed public safety by repressing brig- andage. In 1589 he resigned the eardinalate with the consent of Six-tus V, and married Christine, daughter of Henry III of France. His relations with the papacy were almost always of the best ; he promoted the reform of the Tuscan monasteries and the execu- tion of the decrees of the Council of Trent. His son Cosimo II (1609-21) married Margareta, sister of the Emperor Ferdinand II. Cosimo II ruled in the same spirit as his father and raised the prosperity of the country to a height never before attained. He was succeeded by a minor son of eleven years, Ferdi- nand II (1621-70), the regent being the boy's mother. Margareta's weakness led to the loss of Tuscany's right to the Duchy of Urbino, which fell vacant, and which Pope Urban VII took as an unoccupied fief of the Church. From 1628 Ferdinand ruled independ- ently; to the disadvantage of his country he formed a close imion with the Habsburg dynasty which in- volved him in a number of Italian wars. These wars, together with pestilence, were most disastrous to the countrj'. Cosimo III (1670-1723) brought the coun- try to the brink of ruin by his unlucky policy and his extravagance. His autocratic methods, inconsistency, and preijosterous measures in internal affairs place ui)on him the greater part of the responsibility for the extreme arbitrariness that developed among the state officials, especially among those of the judiciary. Although he sought to increase the importance of the Church, yet he damaged it by using the clerg\' for police purposes, proceeded against heretics with undue severity, anfl sought to aid the conversion of non-Catholics and Jews by all means, even very material ones. During the War of the Spanish Succession the grand duke desired to remain neutral, all hougli he had acc<>i)ted Siena in fief once more from Pliili[) V. In this era the land w'as ravaged by pesti- lence, and the war-taxes and forced contributions levi('d on it by the imperial generals completely de- stroyed ils prosperity. Neither of Cosimo's two sons had male heirs, and finally he obstinately pursued the plan, tdthoiigh wilhout success, to transfer the suc- cession lo his daughter. Before this, however, the powers had settled in the Peace of Utrecht that when the Medici were extinct (he succession to Tuscany was to fall to the Spani.'jh Bourbons. Cosimo III was followed by his second sonGiovanGastone (1723- 37), who permitted the country to be governed by his

unscrupulous chamberlain, Giuliano Dami. When he died the Medici dynasty ended.

In accordance with the Treaty of Vienna of 1735 Francis, Duke of Lorraine, who had married Maria Theresa in 1736, became grand duke (1737-65) instead of the Spanish Bourbons. Francis Joseph garrisoned the countrj' with Austrian troops and transferred its administration to imperial councillors. As Tuscany now became an Austrian territory, belonging as inheritance to the second son, Tuscany was more or less dependent upon Vienna. However, the country once more greatly advanced in economic prosperity, especially during the reign of Leopold I (176.5-90), who, like his brother the Emperor Joseph I, was full of zeal for reform, but who went about it more slowly and cautiou.sly. In 17S2 Leopold sup- pressed the Inquisition, reduced the possessions of the Church, suppressed numerous monasteries, and inter- fered in purely internal ecclesiastical matters for the benefit of the Jansenists. After his election as emperor he was succeeded in 1790 by his second son, Ferdinand III, who ruled as his father had done. During the French Revolution Ferdinand lost his duchy in 1789 and 1800; it was given to Duke Louis of Parma on 1 October, imder the name of the King- dom of Etruria. In 1807 Tuscany was united directly with the French Empire, and Napoleon made his sister Eliza Bacciocchi its administrator with the title of grand duchess. After Napoleon's overthrow the Congress of Vienna gave Tuscany again to Ferdinand and added to it Elba, Piombino, and the Stato degli presidi. A number of the monasteries suppressed by the French were re-estabfished by the Concordat of 1815, but otherwise the government was influenced by the principles of Josephinism in its relations with the CathoUc Church. When the efforts of the Italian secret societies for the formation of a united national state spread to Tuscany, Ferdinand formed a closer union with Austria, and the Tuscan troops were placed under Austrian officers as preparation for the breaking-out of war. The administration of his son Leopold II (1824-60) was long considered the most liberal in Italy, although he reigned as an absolute sovereign. The Concordat of 1850 also gave the Church greater liberty. Notwithstanding the eco- nomic and intellectual growth which the land enjoyed, the intrigues of the secret societies found the country fruitful soil, for the rulers were alwaj'S regarded as foreigners, and the connexion they formed with Aus- tria made them unpopular.

In 1847 a state council was established; on 15 Feb., 1848, a constitution was issued, and on 26 June the newly-elected popular assembly was opened. Not- withstanding this, sedition against the dynasty increased, and in August there were street fights at Leghorn in which the troops proved untrustworthy. Although Leopold had called a democratic ministry in October, with Guerrazzi and MontaneUi at its head, and had taken part in the Piedmontese war against Austria, yet the Republicans forced him to flee from the country and go to Gaeta in Feb., 1849. A provisional republican go^•ernment was established at Florence; this before long was forced to give way to an opposing movement of moderated Liberalism. After this by (he aid of Austria Leopold was able in July, lS-19, to return. In 1852 he suppressed the constitution issued in 1848 and governed as an abso- lute ruler, although with caution and moderation. However, (he suppression of the constitution and the fact that up to 1855 an Austrian army of occupation remained in the country made him gieatly disliked. When in 1S,59 war was begun between Sardinia- Piedmont and Austria, and Leopold became the con- federate of Austria, a fresh revolution broke out which forced him to leave. For the period of the war \'ictor Eiiunanuel occupied the country. After the Peace of Villa Franca had restored Tuscany to Leo-