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have, however, encountered great obstacles in their work, and they have been unable even to consider a direct propaganda in regard to the Mussulmans. Nevertheless, their moral influence is considerable; it manifests itself by social works due to their initiative (schools, hpspitals, dispensaries, etc.) which are very prosperous, and are maintained by numerous organi- zations founded in Europe: the Society of Foreign Missions of Paris, founded in 1658; the Propagation of the Faith, founded at Lyons in 1822; the Society of St. Francis Xavier, founded at Aachen in the year 1832; the Leopolds verein, founded in Austria in 1839; the Society of the Holy Childhood, etc.

Among the rehgious orders represented in the Turkish Empire must be mentioned: the Jesuits, who have established the University of St. Joseph of Beirut, whose faculty of letters numbers distin- guished Orientalists and epigraphists, and whose school of medicine, placed under the control of the University of France, forms a nursery for native phy- sicians; it has ahbrary and a printing-press supplied with Latin and Arabic characters; it publishes a journal and an Arabic review, El-Bachir and ¥A- Machriq; the Assumptionists, at Constantinople; many of whom devote themselves successfully to the study of archaeology and Byzantine antiQuities; the Brothers of the Christian Schools, who had, in 1908, 3449 pupils (8 colleges at Constantinople, 8 at Smyi-na, others at Salonica, Angora etc.); the Capuchins, es- tabhshed in Armenia, Asia Minor, SjTia etc.; the Lazarists, at Beirut; the Carmelites, at Bagdad, Tripoli, etc.; the Salesians, in Palestine; the Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul, who have opened in almost every district schools, hospitals, and workshops, and %vho are respected by the Mussulmans for their self- sacrifice; the Sisters of Notre Dame of Sion, with schoolsinConstantinople; the Dominicans, established at Mossoul and Jerusalem, with a Biblical school. In 1910 a normal school was established at Rhodes to educate members of religious congregations to act as teachers in the East.

All these missions are officially placed under the protectorate of France. For the most part the missionaries are French, but there are also a large number of Germans, Itahans, and English. Besides these Catholic missionaries, rival societies display immense activity. First of all, the Jewish Alhance, which has founded schools in most of the large cities; the Zionist movement has for its object the repeo- pling of Palestine by Jews; a few colonists have been attracted thither from Russia. There are through- out the empire Protestant missions from England, Germany, and America. In 1842 an Anglican bishop- ric was established at Jerusalem, whose titular is alternately English and German. All the large societies of Protestant missions are represented in the Orient (American Board of Foreign M issions, American U. P. Mission, Church Missionary Society, Deutsche Orientmission, German Pioneer Mission, Evangelical Missionary Society of Basle, etc.). All seek to establish their influence by the same propaganda: dis- tribution of Bibles and Gospels translated into the native languag<'s, hospitals, dispensaries, schools etc. At Beirut there is an American University, and more than 30 schools, comprising 3000 pupils. At Constantinople there is the American Robert College.

DuRAND. Empire Ollomnn, Turquie d'Europe, Turquie d' Asie, NoxLvelle carte adminiMrativc, economique €t consulaire (Paris, 1908); CuiNET. La Turquie d'Asie (.'"> vols., Paris, 1891-94): Surie, Liban, Palestine (Paris, 1896-98); B£bard, La Turquie et VkHlenisme contemporain (Paris, 1893); La revolution turque (Paris, 1009); Duband, Jeune Turquie. meille France (Paris, 1909) ; PiNON, L'Europe et Vempire Ottoman (Paris, 1910) ; Imbf.rt, La renovation de Vempire ottoman (Paris, 1909) ; von Oppenheim, Vom Mittelmeer zum persischen Gol/e (2 vols., Berlin, 1899-1900) ; Mabk-Syke9, Dar-el-islam (London, 1903); Tina yre. Notes d'une voyageuse en Orient in Revue dea deux Mondes (,Iuly-Nov., 1909); nr Rauzah, Lv rH/ime des cjtpitulalions dans t'empire ottoman (2nd ed., Paris, 1910); .Iasin, Les groupemenls Chretiens en Orient in ^cAos d'Orient (19')«-07); Fortescoe, The Orthodox Eastern

Church (London, 1907) ; de Meesteb, Voyage de deux benedictins aux monasteres du mont Athos (Paris, 1908) : Bertrand, La melee des religions en Orient in Revue des deux Mondes (Oct., 1909) ; DowuNG. The patriarchate of Jerusalem (London, 1909): Jehat, De la situation legale des sujets ottomans non musulmans (Brussels, 1906); Bertrand, Les ecules d'Orient in Revue des deux Mondes (Sept., Oct., 1909); Carte des ecotes chreliennes de Macedoine (Paris, 1905); Lotrv-ET, Les missions cathoUques au XIX' siicle (Lyons, 1900); Krose, Katholische Mtssujnsstatistik (1908): ,Streit, Katholischen Missionatlas (1908); Berr£, L'action sociale des missionnaires et les dominicains fran^ais en Turqu\e d'Asie (Paris, 1910); Les massacres d'Adana et nos missionnaires (Lyons, 1909); Nopcsa, A Katolikus Es2ak- Albania, XXXV (Foldrajzi Kozlemenyek, 1907); Malden, Foreign missions (Lon- don, 1907); Bliss, Dwight, and Tuppeb, The Encyclopedia of missions (2nd ed., London, 1904); Bliss, The missionary enter- prise (2nd ed.. New York, 1911); Wherht and Barton, The Mohammedan World of To-day (Xew York, 19H).

Periodicals: Missiones CatholicxE cura S. Congregationis de Propaganda Fide descriptor (Rome); Revue du Monde musulman (Paris; see Nov., 1911, La conguete du monde musulman); Echos d'Orient (Paris, 1897—). Beach, Statistical atlas of missions (London and New York, 1910) ; Huber, Carte statistique des cultes Chretiens: L Turquie d'Europe; II, Turquie d'Asie (Cairo, 1910-

11).

Turmair, Joh.\nnes.

Louis Bbehier, See Thurmayr.

Turnebus, Adrian, philologist, b. at Andely in Normandy in 1.512; d. in Paris, 12 June, 1565. The accounts of the life of the great scholar are scantj- and in part even contradictory. Neither is it easy to in- terpret the name Turnebus, in French Turncbe. It is said that his father was a Scottish gentleman named TurnbuU, who settled in Normandy and gave his name the French form of Tournebopuf. From this it became Tournebu, then Turnebe, in Latin Turnebus. Whatever may have been the derivation of his name, Turnebus came from a noble though poor family. ^\'hen eleven years old he was sent to Paris to study. Here his abilty and industry enabled him not only to surpass his fellow-pupils but even also his teachers. In 1532 he received the degree of Master of Arts at the University of Paris, and one year later he became pro- fessor of humanities at Toulouse. Having held this position for fourteen years, he next became professor of Greek at Paris, and in 1561 exchanged this pro- fessorship for that of Greek philosophy. For a time (1552-55) he and his friend Wilham Morel super- vised the royal printing press for Greek works. It is said, and can easily be believed of so distinguished a scholar, that important professorships in other places were declined by him while he taught at Paris. As an illustration of his remarkable industry a well-au- thenticated story is told, that he devoted several hours to study even on his wedding-day. Over-study, howe\-er, wore out his strength prematurely, and he died at the age of fifty-three. In accordance with his own testamentary directions, his body was placed in the ground without any religious ceremony on the very evening of his death. This curious proceeding, as well as various utterances and a severe poem on the Jesuits, raised the much controverted question, whether Turnebus remained a Catholic or became an adherent of the new heresy. It seems at least prob- able that he inclined to Protestant views, even though he did not break completely with the Church, as his CathoHc friends steadily maintained. In other re- spects his character was blameless. His reputation rests not only on his lectures, but also in equal meas- ure on his writings. His numerous works, including commentaries on the ancient classics, short treatises, and poems, were collected and published (2 vols., Strasburg, 1600) with the co-operation of his three sons.

De Thou, Histoire universelte; Jocheb, Allg. Gelehrtcn-Lexikon; IsELiN, Xcu vermehrtes histor. u. geographisches Lexikon, VI.

N. SCHEID.

Turner, Anthony,

\\'II,I,1AM, \ENERAni.E.

Venerable. Sec Barrow,

Turner, William. Sec Galloway, Diocese of.