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has some clients in Albania, and is seeking at the present moment to take possession of Tripoli.

Finally, France, England, and Germany are fight- ing to establish their moral and economic influence. France has maintained an important position because of the protection that it has always exercised over Catholics; French in the Orient has become a kind of second vernacular; while the influence of Germany has increased in the last few years for political reasons, by which the development of German commerce has profited. The European Powers, anxious for the defence of their own interests, are not, however, ready to abandon their capitulations. The TurkishEmpire has moreover entered into a period of transformation, the end of which no one can foresee, and what delays still more the task of the new power is the infinite diversity of races and religions which make up the empire.

Although the statistical documents are very incom- plete, the total population of the empire, including Egypt and the dependencies (Crete, governed by Prince George under the control of the Powers; Samos, governed since 1.S32 by a Greek prince appointed by the sultan), can be estimated at 3(3,000,000. Under the direct government of the sultan there are only 2.1,926,000 subjects, who belong to the following races: (1) Turks, or Osmanlis, estimated at 10,000,000, are settled throughout Asia Minor, the cities of Europe and SjTia, and some cantons of Macedonia; most of them are Mussulmans. (2) Arabs (7,000,- 000), in Arabia, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Tripoli, forming several sects of Mussulmans. (3) Jews, scattered almost everywhere (Jews of Spanish origin form half of the population of Salonica); compact groups of Jews may be found in Jerusalem and its outskirts, at Bagdad, Mossoul, and Beirut. Samar- itans inhabit the sanjak of Naplouse. (4) Gipsies, a m.ysterious race, are scattered throughout the empire. (.5) Armenians, who have swarmed outside of their country and form powerful colonies in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Constantinople, and Turkey in Europe. F'rom a religious standpoint they are Catholics, Gregorians, or Protestants. (6) "Caucasian races: Lazes of Trebizond, Mussulmans or Orthodox Greeks; Kiirils, fanatical Mussulmans scattered around Erze- rum. Angora, Mossoul, Sivas; Circassians, spread throughout Asia Minor, Mussulmans. (7) Syrians, the descendants of Arama>an peoples, divided into a multitude of communities of different language and religion; Chaldmans, in Bagdad, Mossoul, Aleppo, Beirut, or Neslorians, speaking partly Syrian and partly .Arabic. The Melchiles speak Arabic, but belong to the Greek Church. The Jacobites, or Monophysites, speak Arabic and Syriac. The Maronites of the Lebanon and of Beirut speak Arabic and are Catholics. The Druses of the Lebanon form an heretical Mussulman sect. (8) The Greeks have remained in their historic country; as in antiquity they are a maritime people; they form powerful groups at Const ant inoijle, Adrianople, Salonica, in iVIacedonia, Asia Minor, in the isles, in Syria, and in (.'ret e. They belong to the Orthodox or to the Greek- I'liial Church. They are of considerable impor- tance in till' empire. (9) The Albanians appear to be I he reninant of a very ancient race. They form in the west of I he Balkan Peninsula (.-Mbania) a compact group ■■uiil si ill lead a semi-patriarchal life. A large pari (1,000,000) is Mussulman, the others (30,000) C'alhdlic: among them may be found the powerful tribe of I he Mirdites. In 1911 the new government was obliged to direct an expedition against them to effect their disarmament. (9) The Slav peoples, Bidgarians and Servians, are scattered over Mace- donia and Old Servia, where they oppose Greek influi'nce: they are divided between Islamism, Ortho- dox Christianity, and Catholicism. (10) The Kutzo- Vlaclis or l{umanians. Orthodox or Catholics, inhabit

Macedonia, where they are mostly shepherds. (11) Finally, in all Turkish cities may be found a great number of families of European origin, settled in the country for a long period and who have lost their ethnical characters and their languages. Such are the Levantines, who seek to obtain from the ambassa- dors foreign naturahzation for the sake of its privi- leges.

P'rom a rehgious standpoint the Mussulmans may be estimated at 50 per cent of the population, the Orthodox Church 46 per cent, Catholics 3 per cent, other communities, Jews, Druses etc., at 1 per cent. In Turkey in Europe, on the contrary, there are 66 per cent of Christians to 33 per cent of Mussulmans.

(1) Musstdmans. — The Mussulman religion has remained the religion of the state. The sultan is always the caliph, the spiritual head of the Mussul- mans of the whole world. The Mussulmans comprise the majority of Turks, Arabs, and a portion of the Albanians, Bulgarians, Greeks etc. Polygamy is always legal; four legitimate wives and an unlimited number of concubines are permitted to the believers. Under the influence of Western ideas and Chris- tianity, monogamy tends to estabhsh itself. Divorce exists, and the divorced woman can remarry. The sexes are always separated in the family home, which comprises the setamlik (male apartments) and the harem (female apartments). It is the same in the tramways, railways, ships etc. The women cannot go out except veiled, but circulate freely in the streets of the cities unaccompanied. Slavery is always active, but it has kept a patriarchal character. The master must endow his slave when the latter marries, and the Koran obliges him to provide for the needs of his slaves. Education is progressing. In principle it is obligatory. Primary education is free, a secondary school exists at the capital of each vila- yet, as well as one free professional school. Instruc- tion of women is developing at Constantinople; the Lyceum of Galata-Serai, organized by French pro- fessors, has 1100 pupils. Higher instruction is represented by the University of Constantinople and special schools. An imperial museum of archaeology has been created at Tchihni-Kiosk.

As in all Mussulman countries, the spiritual and temporal domains are blended, and civil relations are regulated by religious law which consists in the Koran and in the Cherial, a collection of customs. The in- terpreters of this law are the ulemas, who form a pow- erful clergy whose head, the Shei.lch-ul-islam, has the rank of vizier, and access to the coimcil of ministers, or divan. At twelve years of age the future ulemas leaves the primary school and enters a medresse (sem- inary attached to the mosque) as a softa (student) where he learns grammar, ethics, and theology. He finally receives from the Shrikh-id-islam the diploma of candidate {mtilasini) and can be elevated to the rank of the ulemas; he may become cadi (judge). To advance further he must study for seven years, when he may become imam of a mosque. The ulemas wear a white turban; the hailjis, who have been at Mecca, have the green turban. The mesiljids are simple places of prayer. In a large mosque or djami may be found sheikhs in charge of the preaching; kialihs, who direct the Friday prayer; imams, charged with the ordinary service of the mosque (daily prayer, mar- riages, burials); muezzins, who ascend four times a day to the minaret to call the faithful to prayer; ka'ims, a kind of sacristan. Several orders of der- vishes form the regular clergy and devote themselves to special practices, of which some are noted for their extravagance (howling and whirling); they are dis- tinguished by a conical felt hat. The principal re- ligious obligations, which tJie faithful perform with zeal, are: prayer four times daily, the weekly Friday service, the observance of Ramadan (abstinence from eating, drinking, and smoking from the rising to the