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sters — eleven Franciscans and eight Dominicans tre named. Among the distinguished professors that age were the jurisconsult Claudio Seisello, loted translator of many Greek classics, Pietro ro, Cristoforo Castighone e Grassi, the physician ainiero, and the theologian Francesco della Rovere, erwards Sixtiis IV.

a 1536 the university was closed, owing to the mco-Spanish war in Piedmont; in 1560 it was established at Mondo^^ by Duke Emanuele Fili- •to; in 1566 it was brought back to Turin, with rs permitting increased state interference in the lirs of tlie university. It acquired a great reputa- n, which, however, decUned under Charles Em- nuel I (15S0-1630), who, owing to the expenses of wars, had to suspend his financial contributions the Studium. In the seventeenth century the cials of the respective nations granted the students I right to interrupt the professors' lectures. Studies .urally languished. In 1687 there were 3 professors theology, 13 of law, 10 of medicine, 6 of arts. The 8 course did not then include the belles-lettres, ich were taught in the Jesuit college. Victor ledeo II granted a new constitution to the univer- f Cl"20-29), which thenceforward was a purely te institution; he also had the present building cted after the design of Gio. Antonio Ricca. A ral official was appointed to supervise the obser- ice of the Statutes and to act as a censor of books. )m 1729 the rector was chosen from among the )fessors. At the same time the Collegio delle ovincie was established for students not natives of rin. The statutes contained a regulation strictly iging the students to be present in the oratory of ! university on holy days of obhgation. On the ler hand, the king ordered the professors of theology observe neutrahty in questions concerning GaUi- lism.

At the beginning of the French Revolution the iversity declined rapidly; the school of anatomy, instance, became a political club. Under Napo- tn (1800-14) the studies were reorganized according French methods; several new chairs were estab- hed, and the revival in this sense was continued by ospero Balbo. In 1821 the students, under the pulse of the constitutional movement, rebelled, d severe nieasures were adopted. Lectures were atinued outside of the university. In the third cade of the nineteenth century there were notable itations in the theological faculty in favour of papal allibility, and agitations brought about by the )ralist Dettorri, who was afterwards exiled. During e Revolution of July 1830, the university was closed, d the scliools dispersed among different cities. In 45 the curriculum was re-organized. In the theo- 5ical faculty chairs of ecclesiastical history, oratory, d Biblical exegesis were established. In 1860 is faculty was, here as elsewhere, abolished. Among the distinguished professors of Turin since e sixteenth century the jurist Gian Francesco Balbo id the physician Giovanni Nevizzano are worthy mention; after the restoration of the university, e jurists Cuiacius and Pancirolus, the physicians essed Giovenale Ancina (afterwards Bishop of luzzo) and Lucillo Filalteo; the Greek scholar sodoro Rendio, was called to the Collegio Greco by regory XIII. Distinguished in the eighteenth ntury were Vincenzo Gravina and Luigi Fantoni e jurisconsults, the Augustinian GiuUo Accetta in athematics, the Piarist Giambattista Beccaria, in lysics, the Barnabite Sigismondo Gerdil, in ethics, iambatti.sta Carburi and Vitaliano Donati in medi- ae, the historian Carlo Denino, and Francesco ntonio Chionio, the professor of canon law whose ork "De regimine ecclesiae" caused scandal by •ducing all religion (o internal worship, and leaving 18 control of the Church to the civil power; in the

nineteenth century: Father Peyron, professor of Oriental languages, a celebrated Egyptologist, the philologists Vallauri and Fabretti, the mathematician and physicist Galileo Ferrari, the historian Balbo, the physiologist Cesare Lombroso. The university has 22 chairs of jurisprudence with 18 professors and 20 decent s; 24 chairs of physical and mathematical sciences with 17 professors and 17 docents; 28 chairs of medicine with 25 professors and 89 docents; 22 chairs of philosophy and literature with 19 professors and 21 docents. In connexion with the medical faculty are a school of pharmacy, various clinics, laboratories, etc., as well as the laboratories, cabinets, and astronomical ob.servatory of the other scientific faculties. In 1910-11 there were 2204 students enrolled.

Ammario delta R. Universitd di Torino (1876) : Vallauri, Storia delle Universita degli Studi in Piemonle (Turin, 1875); Bona, Delle cosliluzioni delV Universitd di Torino (Turin, 18.52).

U. Benigni.

Turkestan. — I. Chinese Turkestan. — WTien Jen- ghiz Khan died (1227) his second son, Djagatai, had the greater part of Central Asia for his share of the in- heritance: his empire included not only Mdvard-un- Nahr, between the Syr Daria and the Ainu Daria, but also Ferghana, Badakhshan, Chinese Turkestan, as well as Ivhorasan at the beginning of his reign; his capital was Almaliq, in the Hi Valley, near the site of the present Kulja; in the fourteenth century the empire was divided into two parts: Mdvard-un- Nahr or Transoxiana, and Moghulistan or Jabah, the eastern division. In 1759 the Emperor K'ien Lung subjugated the country north and south of the T'ien- shan and divided the new territory into T'ien-shan Peh-lu and T'ien-shan Nan-lu; in 1762 a military governor was appointed and a new fortified town, Hwei-yuan-ching, was erected (1764) near the site of Kulja: a number of Manchus, from Peking and the Amu, and Mongols were drawn to the new place and later on there came a migration of Chinese from the Kan-su and Shen-si Provinces. The local Moham- medan chieftains are known as Pe-k'e (Beg) ; they are classed in five degrees of rank from the third to the seventh degree of the Chinese hierarchy: the most important titles are Ak'im Beg (local governor), Ish- khan Beg (assistant governor), Shang Beg (collector of revenue), Hatsze Beg (judge), Mirabu Beg (superin- tendent of agriculture).

The bad administration of the Chinese governors was the cause of numerous rebellions; a great rising took place against the Governor of Hi, Pi Tsing; at the head was Jihanghir, son of Saddet All Sarimsak and grandson of one of the Khoja, Burhan ed-Din; unfortunate at finst, Jihanghir was victorious in Octo- ber, 1825, and captured the four great towns of T'ien-shan Nan-lu: Kashgar, Yangi-hissar, Yarkand, and Khotan. The Chinese Emperor Tao Kwang sent General Ch'ang Ling to fight the rebels. Jihan- ghir was defeated and made a prisoner at K'artie- kai (1828) and sent to Peking where he was put to death in a cniel manner. On the other hand, the establishment of Orenburg by the Russians, the ex- ploration of the Syr Daria by Batiakov, the founda- tion of Kazalinsk (1848) near the mouth of this river, the exertions of Perovsky, the attacks of the Cos- sacks against the Khanate of Khokand, had for result the arrival of the Russians in the valley of the Hi River. On 25 July, 1851, Col. Kovalevski signed with the Chinese on behalf of the Russians at Kash- gar a treaty regulating the trade at Hi (Kiilja) and at Tarbagatai (Chugutrhak). In the meantime new rebellions broke out after the death of Jihanghir: in 1846 one of the Khoja, Katti Tor.ah, with the help of his brothers took Kashgar, but w;is soon defeated by the Chinese; in 1857 Wali Khan captured Kashgar, Artosh, and Yangi-hiss.ar; and at last, the son of Jihanghir, Burzuk Khan, with the help of Mohammed