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 SOCIETIES

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SOCIETIES

Reviewing the history of socialistic experiments, we perceive that only those that were avowedly and strongly rehgious, adopting a socialistic organization as incidental to their rehgious purposes, have achieved even temporary and partial success. Prac- tically speaking, only two of these rehgious com- munities remain; of these the Shakers are growing steadily weaker, while the Amana Society is almost stationary, and, besides, is obliged to carry on some of its industries with the aid of outside hired labor.

See bibliography under Communism. HiLQriT. Hi.itory of Socialism in the United States (New York, 1903); Kent in Bulletin No. 35 of the Department of Labor; Mallock, A Century of Socialistic Experiments in The Dublin Review, Ju\y, 1909; Wolff, Socialistic Communism in the United States in The American Catho- lic Quarterly Review, III (Philadelphia. 187S), S22; Socialist Colony ill Mexico in Dublin Review, CXIV (London, 1894). ISO.

John A. Ryan.

Societies, Catholic. — Catholic societies are very numerous throughout the world; some are inter- national in scope, some are national; some diocesan and others parochial. These are treated in particu- lar under their respective titles throughout the En- cyclopedia, or else under the countries or the dioceses in which they exist. This article is concerned only with Catholic societies in general. The right of asso- ciation is one of the natural rights of man. It is not surprising, therefore, that from earliest antiquity societies of the most diverse kinds should have been formed. In pagan Rome the Church was able to carry on its work and elude the persecuting laws, only under the guise of a private corporation or so- ciety. When it became free it encouraged the associ- ation of its children in various guilds and fraternities, that they might more easily, while remaining subject to the general super\'ision of ecclesiastical authority, obtain some special good for their souls or bodies or both simultaneously. By a society we understand the voluntary and durable association of a number of persons who pledge themselves to work together to obtain some special end. Of such societies there is a great variety in the Church both for laymen and clerics, the most perfect species of the latter being the regular orders and rehgious congregations bound by perpetual vows. As to societies of laymen, we may distinguish broadly three classes: (a) confraternities, which are associations of the faithful canonicaUy erected by the proper ecclesiastical superior to pro- mote a Christian method of life by special works of piety towards God, e. g. the splendour of divine wor- ship, or towards one's neighbour, e. g. the spiritual or corporal works of mercy (see Confr.\teknitv) :

(b) pious associations, whose objects are generally the same as those of confraternities, but which are not canonicaUy erected (see Associatio.n.';, Pious); and

(c) societies whose members are Catholics, but which are not in the strict sense of the word religious societies. Some of these associations are ecclesiasti- cal corporations in the strict acceptation of the term, while others are merely subordinate and dependent parts of the pari.sh or dioce-san organization, or only remotely connected with it. Church corporations, inasmuch as they are moral or legal persons, have the right, according to canon law, of inaking by-laws for their association by the suiTrage of the members, of electing their own officers, of controlling their prop- erty within the limits of the canons, and of making provision, according to their own judgment, for their preservation and growth. They have, consequently, certiun defined rights, both original or those derived from their constitution, and adventitious or what they ha\e acquired by privilege or concession. Among original rights of all ecclesiastical corporations are the right of exclusion or the cxpclHng of memljers; of selection or the adoption of new members; of con- vention or meeting for debate anil counsel; of assist- ance or aiding their associates who suffer from a viola-

tion of their corporate rights. Societies of this nature have an existence independent of the individual mem- bers and can be dissolved only by ecclesiastical de- cree. CathoUc societies which are not church cor- porations may be founded and dissolved at the will of their members. Sometimes the\' are approved, or technically praised, by ecclesiastical authority, but they are also frequently formed without any interven- tion of the hierarchy. In general, it may be said that Catholic societies of any description are very desir- able.

The Church has always watched with singular care over the various organizations formed by the faithful for the promotion of any good work, and the popes have enriched them with indulgences. No hard and fast rules have been made, however, as to the method of government. Some societies, e. g. the Propaga- tion of the Faith and the Holy Childhood, are gen- eral in their scope; others, e. g. the Church Extension Society of the United States, are pecuhar to one country. It sometimes happens that an association formed for one country penetrates into another, e. g. the Piusverein, the Society of Christian Mothers, etc. There are also societies instituted to provide for some special need, as an altar or tabernacle society, or for the furthering of some special devotion, as the Holy Name Society. For societies which are general in their scope, the Holy See frequently appoints a car- dinal protector and reserves the choice of the presi- dent to itself. This is likewise done as a mark of special favour to some societies which are only na- tional, as the Church Extension Society of the United States (Brief of Pius X, 9 June, 1910). In general, it may be affirmed that it is the special duty of the bishop and the parish priest to found or promote such societies as the faithful of their districts may be in need of. Utilit}' and necessity often vary with the circumstances of time and country. In some lands it has been found possible and advisable for the Church authorities to form Catholic societies of workingmen. These are trades-unions under ecclesiastical auspices and recall the old Catholic guilds of the Middle .Ages. Zealous bishops and priests have made the promotion of such societies, as in Germany and Belgium, a special work, in the hope of preventing Cathohc workingmen from being allured by temporal gain into atheistic societies in which the foundations of civil and religious institutions are attacked. In these unions a priest appointed by the bishop gives religious instruc- tions which are particularly directed against the im- pious arguments of those who seek to destroy the morals and faith of the workingman. Methods are pointed out for regulating the family life according to the laws of God ; temperance, frugality, and submis- sion to lawful authority are urged, and frequent at ion of the sacraments insisted on. These unions also pro- vide innocent amusements for their members. Such societies at times add confraternity and sodality fea- tures to their organization.

There are a number of societies formed by Catholics which are not in a strict sense Catholic societies. Nevertheless, as the individual faithful are subject to the authority of the bishop they remain subject to the same authority even as members of an organiza- tion. It is true that the bishop may not, in conse- quence of his ecclesiastical jurisdiction, rule such societies in the same sense as he does confraternities and pious associations, yet he retains the inalienable right and even the obligation of preventing the faith- ful from being led into spiritual ruin through societies of whatsoever name or purpose. He can, therefore, if convinced that an organization is harmful, forbid it to assist at church services in its ngali;i, and, when no eiiieiidation results, warn individu;ils against entering it or remaining members of it. Finally, there are so- cieties which are entirely secular, whose sole purpo.se is to jjromote or obtain some commercial, domestic,