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emperor had hoped to bo able to indemnify Sweden and to separate it from France, but on Sweden's re- fusal to accept his proposals he was obliged to give up his intention of making peace only if Spain were in- cluded in it. Supported by Maximihan, France induced the emperor and empire to remain neutral during the Franco-Spanish war. This success for France, however, did not prevent Holland from con- cluding peace with Spain on 5 June, 1648. But France received recompense for this disajjpointment in a new and great victory of Conde at Lens in the Netherlands, on 20 August, 1648. To secure peace for the empire, Austria consented in 1648 to give up its hereditary lands in Alsace and the city of Breisach to France; it also finally recognized the incorporation of the territories of JNIetz, Toul, and Verdun into France. It postponed, however, the decision as to the claims of France on the Duchy of Lorraine, and prevented France being made an estate of the empire for its conquests in Alsace. Sweden received the land around the mouth of the Oder with Stettin and Hither Pomerania, the territory near the outlet of the Weser, . and the dioceses of Bremen and Verden, as well as Wismar, and was made an estate of the empire, be- cause it, and not the Electorate of Sa.xony, had been the leader of the Protestant estates in the negotiations for peace. In addition it was to receive money to pay its mercenaries.

Taken in general, all the states and territories of the empire were confirmed in the possessions that they had had in 1618. The exceptions were: Electoral Saxony was confirmed in the possession of Lusatia which had been conceded to it in 1620; Bavaria was left in possession of the Upper Palatinate and of the fourth electorship, while a new, eighth electorate was created for the Palatinate; by the intervention of France, Brandenburg received, besides Further Pom- erania, a number of dioceses with the right to secu- larize them. This and the similar concession to Sweden for Bremen and Verden undermined one of the main foundations of the organization of the empire, which for hundreds of years had rested on the exist- ence and importance of the spiritual domains. In other particulars it was evident that the more im- portant states sought, and probably sincerely, not to damage the efforts made in the Peace of Prague to revive the organization of the empire, yet in various instances they inflicted much injury upon it. It was contrary to the organization of the empire that the negotiations, deviating from the original intention, were not limited to external matters. Sweden and a large number of the Protestant estates were not will- ing to consent to this. To settle the claims made by the different rehgious denominations to one and the same territory the year UV24 was taken as the normal year, and the denomination which had prevailed in that year in a territory, was, as a rule, to be the per- manent religion of that territory. Calvinism was included in the rehgious peace. The compulsory force of the principle, cujus regio, ejus religio, was restricted by granting private liberty of conscience, but only to a limited extent. The result of these regulations was in the main that the period of the violent religious disputes which had divided the empire was closed. It was also hoped that an effect- ive working of the organic parts of the empire — the imperial and provincial diets, the supreme court, the Aulic Council, and the district constitution — would be secured for the future by an arrangement of their relations with one another and of their authority. The details of this reconstruction were left to the decision of a future Diet. It was settled, however, that grants of supplies were to be made not by majority votes, but by the voluntary agreement of the estates. All the rulers, even the petty ones in southern and western Germany, were declared sovereign in the internal government of their territories with certain XIV.-42

exceptions. Moreover, the right to have diplomatic relations with foreign countries and to make treaties with them was granted to every estate. In reaUty this regulation only gave legal recognition to condi- tions that actually existed.

Austria was exempt from all these regulations, espe- cially from the changes in the canon law prevailing there. This showed how httle injury the war had inflicted upon it, and also the increasing difTerentia- tion between its domains and those of the other estates of the empire. The seal was impressed upon this differentiation by the fact that, France secured (1647) the appointment of John Philip von Schonborn as Elector of Mainz and consequently Chancellor of the Empire, and especially by the fact that the treaty conceded to France and Sweden lasting diplomatic influence in the empire in return for their evacuation of the imperial territories. To counterbalance the influence which Austria exercised within the empire in virtue of her possession of the imperial crown, France and Sweden received the right to superintend the exe- cution of the treaty in the empire, consequently to con- tinually interfere in imperial afTairs. On this basis the Peace of Westphaha with France and Sweden was settled on 24 October, 1648. The chief results of the Thirty Years War were: the foundation and recog- nition of a unified Austria under the rule of the Ger- man Habsburgs; the revival, in a certain doubtful sense though, of the Holy Roman Empire; the estab- lishment of Sweden on German soil; the permanent weakening of Denmark; the renunciation by Holland of aU efTorts to drive Spain out of southern Nether- lands; an enormous increase of the power of France. The question whether Spain would be able to main- tain itself as a great power alongside of France led to eleven more years of war between the two states, and was decided, in favour of France, by t he Treaty of the Pyrenees. This treaty and that of Westphalia were the basis of the pre-eminent position of France during the second half of the seventecnlli century.

Thealrum Europarxtm (Ifi.-i.T — ): Km ' i, b, .,-,/. ^- Fer-

dinandei (Ratisbon, 164(1— Iti, I'ljil ' hf.rq,

Commentariorum df bril" iuhr tiriji^ /, •' ///

el eorum hostes geslo hbcr .':iniiul,iri- n. . li;:!9);

Cab.\fa, Commentaria de Germania sa- ra nsinurata (ll)3il), sup- plement (1641); Chemnitz, KgL Schwedischen in Teutschtand ffefiihrten Krieges, pt. i (1648), pt. ii, (165.3); Pufendorf, Com- vicntariorum de rebus Suecicis (1686) ; Aitzema, Saken van Staet en Oorhgh in ende ontrent de Vereenigde Nedertanden (1621-1669; 16.'J7-71) ; Korrespondenz Kaiser Ferdinands II . . . mil P. Becanus UTtd P. Wilheljn Lamormaini, k. Beichtvdtem in Archiv far Oesterr. Geseh., n. 54; Nunliaturfn-rirhtf aus Deutschland, division 4 (1628-1635; 2 vol- i;i, <..: <\v |.r,. nil; Irmer, Die Vcrhandhtngen Schwedens "■ ■< I i mit Wallen-

strin nnd dfm Kaiser^ 163I-: ' I I - - ' i Negociations

sfcri'les Inuchant la paix de M^- : '■ r, : .rn '■■,!■:. „ ' 1 vols.. 1725- 26); Corrcspondrncia diplojnnlira dc his pUnijinlrnriarios EspaH- oles (u rl rongrcsso de Miinsler (3 vols., 18S4-85); G.iRTNEB, Wcslphtilisrhe Friedenakanzlcy (9 vols., 1731-3S); Meiern, Acta pads Wrslphalic<r publica (6 vols., 173.'j-36); Politische Korre- spondem des Orafen Franz Wilhelm von Wartenberg, Bischofs von Osnabriick, IBUl-Sl (1897); Gindelt. Gesch. des SO jdhrigen Kriegcs (4 vols., Prague, 18(i9-80), only covers up to 1623; Gar- diner, The Thirly Years War (London, 1874). many editions; Winter, Gesch. des SO j&hrigen Krieges (1883); Ritteb, i)eu(scfce Gesch. im Zeitaller der Gegenreformalion u. dfs SO j&hrigen Krieges. Ill (Stuttgart, 1908); Hurteh. Cesch. Kaiser Fer- dinand's II., VIII-XI (Schatfhnusen. 1857-64) ; Koch, Ge.'ich. des deulschen Reichs unler die Regierung Ferdinands III (2 vols., 1865-66); Klopp. Der SO jdhrige Krieg bis zum Tode Gustav Adolfs 1632 (3 vols., Paderborn 1891-96); Riezleb, Gesch. Baiems, V; Hanotaux, La _ rrisc ctmpccniie de 1631 in Revue de deux iwu, >/■.-. \, ,; - 1 1 1 \ r, !■ < ' : r. Mans/eld

(1890); Opel, Der ..", ;, 1 vols., 1872-

94);ScHMiTz,Z)i'«ni.i - / /' ' v;-os(1903);

CtsTHr.n. Dns Rr.^nn,!,.,: ■ i,:/ ,- h. I :l[T,lng the burning of Magdeburg, especially those t)f WiTTirii; Cronholm, Serxges hislorin under Gustav Adolfs regering (6 vols., Stockholm, 1857-72); Trcllionriga kriget ogundcr- handlingama i Tyksland fran Guslav Adolfs did till Westfalisca freMslulet n87-S0): Gfrorf.r. Gesch. Guslav Adnlfs (4th cd., 1864); Ehseh, Papst Urban VIII u. Guslav Adolfs in Hist. Jahrbuch der Gorresgesellschafl, XVI; Irmf.k, Amim (1894); Struck, Johann Georg u. Oienstierna (.Stralsund, 1899); SODEN, Guslar Adolf und sein Heer in Saddculschiand 16SI-3S (3 vols., 1865-69) ; Jaeob, Von Lulzen nach Nurdlingen (Strasburg, 1904) ;