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proclamation of neutrality. This gave the Swedes time to place their troops under the command of Torstenson, who was much superior to Baner in energy. Moreover, the rising of the French nobiUty was not as successful as the Habsburgs had hoped. Guebriant, indeed, was obhged to withdraw from the empire to aid in it.s suppression, but on his way to France he defeated at Kempen in January, 1642, the ! imperial and Spanish troops, who were going to the help of the French nobles. In the meantime the war had taken a decisive turn in favour of the French, in an imexpected place. The inhabitants of Barce- lona, oppressed by the Spanish soldiers quartered upon them, revolted and were soon joined by the whole of Catalonia (June, 1640). Richeheu at once sent aid to the rebels. In December, 1640, Portugal also shook off the Spanish yoke. For several years Spain was crippled at the chief seat of war by these conflicts in the Pyrenean peninsula. On the other hand the French, under the leadership of young com- manders, Turenne and Conde, became experts in the art of war. By June, 1642, Piedmont was again under control. In 1643 Conde completely destroyed the finest and most celebrated troops of the Spanish ai"my at Rocroi in the Netherlands. The Provinces of Hainault and Luxemburg in the southern Nether- lands fell into his hands. In 1644, Holland seized the mouth of the Scheldt and France Grevelingen, and in 1645 France occupied the greater part of Flanders and in 1646 Dunkirk. Henceforth, the Spaniards held only a few of the large cities in the Spanish Netherlands. The people, excepting the nobility, remained loyal to them.

VIII. The Results of the Wak. — The German Habsburgs were forced to take the defensive and their cause was in great danger. Allied with Maxi- milian they were compelled to use their main force to prevent the occupation of southern Germany by the French. They bravely fought in this part of Germany under Mercy during the years 1643-45, but were continually obliged to fall back. On 5 May, 1645, they gained a famous victory over Tu- renne at Mergentheim; on 3 August, 1645, the French were victorious at Allersheim and Mercy was kiUed. Still the imperial and Bavarian troops were always at least strong enough to save Bavaria from the incursions of the French. In the meantime, however, the imperial forces had not been able to bring a sufficiently large army against the Swedes. These, it is true, were obliged to encounter (1642) a new en- emy in Denmark. But the Danes accomplished just as little as their imperial allies. The imperial forces were severely defeated by Torstenson at Breitenfeld in November, 1642, and at Jiiterbogk and Magde- burg in October, 1644. After these two victories, Torstenson formed an alliance with George R;ik6czy, the successor to Bethlen Gabor as Prince of Transyl- vania. Resolved to carry the war directly into the hereditary lands of the emperor, Torstenson advanced at once as far as Briinn, but there saw that he was too weak for such an undertaking. The result of the Swedish victories in this year was the permanent loss by the imperialists of the control of the Weser, and of their position in north-western Germany. Den- mark concluded a treaty of peace in 1645.

During the years 1642-45 the German estates un- ceasingly demanded peace. As early as 1640, at a session of the Electors at Nuremberg, the opinion was expressed, that, a part of Pomrrania should be cedeil to the Swedes if this would content thi-in. In 1641, at the suggestion of the electors the first Diet held since 1613 met at Ratisbon, and its success proved that the effort made in the Peace of Prague to revive the organization of the empire had borne good fruit. The Diet granted the emperor considerable subsidies. The estates, however, showed very plainly that they believed the emperor was over-considerate of Spain.

France and Sweden encouraged this view by express- ing their readiness to open negotiations. The opinion gained ground among the estates that if Austria did not break off it s connexion with Spain the est at es would once more abandon the emperor, form a union among themselves, and make a treaty of peace for the em- pire with France and Sweden. The estates hoped that these two countries would consent not to inter- fere in the internal affairs of the empire, especially as regards rehgion. The economic suffering and misery of the population of the empire had greatly increased, largely through the marauding exTJeditions of the Swedes, and final success in the war was clearly out of the question. John Philip von Schonborn, Bishop of Wiirzburg, was especially active in supporting the proposal that the estates should separate from the emperor and establish peace in the empire without him. Maximilian encouraged the bishop, though reluctantly. One after another, the smaller German estates brought letters of protection from the Swedes in order to escape being phmdered by them. In this way these territories became neutral without any further formahties. Of the larger principahties Brandenburg abandoned its neutrahty in 1644 with- out, however, becoming friendly to the emperor on this account. On the other hand. Saxony, which was exhausted and desperate, made a direct treaty of neutrahty with Sweden in 1 645. Under these circum- stances the emperor early in 1643 also declared him- self ready to negotiate. He wished, however, that the treaty of peace should be general, not limited in geo- graphical extent as was the case in 1630. The nego- tiations were to be carried on with France at Miinster, with Sweden at Osnabriick, where the Swedish em- bassy had been since the spring of 1643. About the middle of 1643 the imperial delegates appeared at both designated places, and the French delegates fol- lowed in tlie spring of 1644. At the close of 1644, the imperial delegates presented their first proposition, to which the French did not reply until No-i-ember, 1645. A last dispute had arisen over the question whether the emperor alone should negotiate for the empire or whether the estates should also be represented. The quarrel was practically settled by the invitation to be present sent to the various estates by France and Sweden. On 26 August, 1645, the emperor also in- vited them. In the same year representatives of Spain and Holland also appeared at Miinster. An ambassador of Venice and a papal nuncio likewise took part as mediators between France and the emperor.

The course of the negotiations was influenced by the results of the last events of the war, and it was decided by the military conditions of 1646. In this year the Swedes under Wrangcl united with Tiirenne iind the two armies occupied Bavaria. This led MaximiUan to make a treaty of neutrahty with Sweden in March, 1647. The entire empire was now occupied by the armies of France and Sweden, but the emperor retained undisputed possession of his heredi- tary lands. The outbreaks of the years 1647-4S were directed against him. The French, however, could not aid these revolts, as internal troubles in France claimed their attention and made them desirous of coming to a settlement with the emperor and the empire. \Ahile Turenne marched back to France (1647) Wrangel seized Prague, but was expelled by the emperor and Maximilian, who broke his agree- ment with Sweden. In 164S Turenne appeared again and, allied with the Swedes, defeated the imperial and Bavarian forces at Zusmarliausen and cruelly ravaged B.avaria. The attack on Prague was renewed by the Swedes alone in July, 164S, under Kiinigsmark. They took part of the city, but the .'Vustrians brought to- getlier a larger army and forced them to withdraw in November, 1648.

At the opening of the negotiations for jjcace the