Page:Catholic Encyclopedia, volume 14.djvu/676

 THEOLOGY

616

THEOLOGY

deeming it "criminal to assume voluntary sufferings" (Seeberg), they are just as far from advocating the so-called "non-sensual" tendency, which, looking upon the body and its life as a necessary evil, proposes to avert its noxious effects by wilful weakening or even mutilation (cf. Schneider, "Gottliche Weltord- nung u. rehgionslose Sittlichkeit", Paderborn, 1900, p. 537). On the other hand, Cathohcs will never befriend the gospel of "healthy sensuality", which is only a pretty-sounding title, invented to cloak unrestricted concupiscence.

Special attention is devoted to the mastering of the passions, because it is with them above all else that the moral combat must be waged most relent- lessly. Scholastic philosophy enumerates the following passions: love, hatred, desire, horror, joy, sadness, hope, despair, boldness, fear, anger. Starting from the Christian idea that the passions (passimies, as understood by St. Thomas) are inherent in human nature, ascetics affirms that they are neither sick- nesses, as the Stoics, the Reformers, and Kant maintain, nor yet haj-mless, as was asserted by the Humanists and Rousseau, who denied original sin. On the contrary, it insists that in themselves they are indifferent, that they may be employed for good and for evil, and that they receive a moral character only by the use to which the will puts them. It is the purpose of ascetics to point out the ways and means by which these passions can be tamed and mastered, so that, instead of goading the will to sin, they are rather turned into welcome allies for the accomplishment of good. And since the passions are inordinate in as far as they turn to illicit things or exceed the necessarj' bounds in those things which are hcit, ascetics teaches us how to render them innocuous by averting or restraining them, or by turning them to loftier purposes.

(3) Labour, also, is subservient to the striving after perfection. Untiring labour runs counter to our corrupt natiu'e, which loves ease and comfort. Hence labour, if well-ordered, persistent, and purposeful, imphes self-denial. This is the reason why the Cath- olic Church has always looked upon labour, both manual and mental, as an ascetic means of no small value (cf. Cassian, "De instit. ccenob.", X, 24; St. Benedict, Rule, xlviii, U; Basil, "Reg. fusius tract." c. xxxvii, 1-3; "Reg. brevius tract.", c. Ixxii; Origen, "Contra Celsum", I, 28). St. Basil is even of the opinion that piety and avoidance of labour are irreconcilable in the Christian ideal of life (cf. Maus- bach, "Die Ethik des hi. Augustinus", 1909, p. 264).

(4) Suffering, too, is an integral constituent of the Christian ideal and pertains consequently to ascetics. But its real value appears only when seen in the light of faith, which teaches us that suffering makes us like unto Christ, we being the members of the mystic body of which He is the head (I Peter, ii, 21), that suffering is the channel of grace which heals (sannt), preserves (conservat), and tests (probat). Finally, ascetics teaches us how to turn sufferings into chan- nels of heavenly grace.

(5) The Virtues are subjected to a thorough dis- cussion. As is proved in dogmatic theologj', our Boul receives in justification supornatur.al habits, not only the three Divine, but also the moral virtues (Trid., Sess. VI, Dejustit., c. vi; Cat. Rom., p. 2, c. 2, n. 51). These supernatural powers (virlutcn irifu!«r) are joined to the natural faculties or the acquired virtues (tnrlutes acquiHlcF), constituting with them one principle of action. It is the task of ascetics to show how the virtues, taking into accoimt the obstacles and means mentioned, can be reduced lo practice in the actual life of the Christian, so tliat love be perfected and the image of Christ receive perfect shajie in us. Conformable to the Brief of Leo XIII, "Teslem benevolenlia>" of 22 ,Tan., 1899, ascetics insists that the so-called "passive"

virtues (meekness, humility, obedience, patience) must never be set aside in favour of the "active" virtues (devotion to duty, scientific activity, social and civilizing labour); for this would be tantamount to denying that Christ is the perpetual model. Rather, both kinds must be harmoniously joined in the life of the Christian. True imitation of Christ is never a brake, nor does it blimt the initiative in any field of human endeavour. On the contrary, the practice of the passive virtues is a support and aid to true activity. Besides, it not rarely happens that the passive virtues reveal a higher degree of moral energy than the active. The Brief itself refers us to Matt., xxi, 29; Rom., viii, 29; Gal., v, 24; Phil., ii, 8; Heb., xiii, 8 (cf. also Zahn, 1. c, 166 sqq.).

D. Application of the Means in the Three Degrees of Christian Perfection. — Imitation of Christ is the duty of all who strive after perfection. It Ues in the very nature of this formation after the image of Christ that the process is gradual and must follow the laws of moral energy; for moral perfection is the terminus of a laborious journey, the crown of a hard-fought battle. Ascetics divides those who strive after perfection into three groups: the beginners, the advanced, the perfect; and correspondingly sets down three stages or ways of Christian perfection: the purgative way, the illuminative way, the unitive way. The means stated above are applied with more or less diversity according to the stage which the Christian has reached. In the purgative way, when the appetites and inordinate passions still possess considerable strength, mortification and self- denial are to be practised more extensively. For the seeds of the spiritual fife will not sprout unless the tares and thistles have first been weeded out. In the illuminative way, when the mists of passion have been lifted to a great extent, meditation and the practice of virtues in imitation of Christ are to be insisted on. During the last stage, the unitive way, the soul must be confirmed and perfected in conformity with God's will ("And I live, now not I; but Christ liveth in me": Gal., ii, 20). Care must, however, be taken not to mistake these three stages for wholly separate portions of the striving after virtue and perfection. Even in the second and the third stages there occur at times violent struggles, while the joy of being united with God may some- times be granted in the initial stage as an inducement for further advance (cf. Mutz, "Aszetik," 2nd ed., 94 sq.).

E. Relation of Ascetics to Moral Theology and Mysticism. — All these disciplines are concerned with the Christian life and its last end in the next world; but they differ, though not totally, in their mode of treatment. Ascetical theology, which has been separated from moral theoIog\' and mysticism, has for its subject-matter the striving after Christian perfection; it shows how Christian perfection may be attained by earne.<itly exercising and .schooling the will, using the specified means both to avoid the dangers and alhu-ements of sin and to practise virtue with greater intensity. Moral theology, on the other hand, is the doctrine of the duties, and in discussing the virtues is satisfied with a scientific exposition. Mysticism treats cs.sentially of "union with God" and of the extraordinary, so-callinl mystic prayer. Though also those phenomena which are accidental to mysticism, such as ecsta.sy, vision, revelation, fall within its scope, yet they are by no means es.sential to the mvstic life (rf.Zahn,"Einfiihrung in diechristl. Myslik"", Paderborn, 190S). It is true that mysti- cism includes also matter of ascetics, such as the endeavrmr of purification, vocal prayer, etc.; but this is flone because these exercises are looked upon as pre]>aratory to the mystical life and must not be dis- carded even in its highest stage. Nevertheless, the