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 THEOLOGY

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THEOLOGY

in moral theology and that in two directions: one in the new strength infused into the practice of the con- fessors, the other in renewed vigour given to the speculative portion.

With the gradual dj'ing out of the pubUc penances, the "penitential books" lost their importance more and more. The confessors grew less concerned about the exact measure of penances than about the essen- tial object of the sacrament, which is the reconciUa- tion of the sinner with God. Besides, the "peniten- tial books" were by far too defective for teaching confessors how to judge about the various sins, their consequences and remedies. In order to meet this need, St. Raymond of Penafort wrote towards the year 1235 the" Summa de pcenitentiaetmatrimonio". Like his famous collection of decretals, it is a repertory of canons on various matters, i. e. important passages from the Fathers, councils, and papal decisions. More immediately adapted for actual use was the "Summa de casibus conscientife", which was written about 1317 by an unknown member of the Order of St. Francis at Asti in Upper Italy, and which is, there- fore, known as "Summa Astensana" or "Summa As- tensis". Its eight books cover the whole subject matter of moral theology and the canonical decrees, both indispensable for the pastor and confessor: Book I, the Divine commandments; II, virtues and vices; III, contracts and wills; IV-VI, sacraments, except matrimon}'; VII, ecclesiastical censures; V'lII, matrimony. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries produced a number of similar summcF for confessors; all of them, however, discarded the arrangement in books and chapters, and adopted the alphabetical order. Their value is, of course, widely different. The following are the most important and most popu- lar among them: The "Summa confessorum" of the Dominican Johannes of Freibiu'g (d. 1314), which was published a few years previous to the "Summa As- tensis"; its high reputation and wide circulation was due to its revision by another member of the Domini- can Order, BartholoniEPus of Pisa (d. 1347), who ar- ranged it alphabetically and supplemented its ca- nonical parts; it is commonly known as the "Summa Pisana". This work served as the foundation for the "Summa angelica", a clear and concise treatise, composed about 1476 by the Franciscan Angelus Cerletus, called "Angelus a Clavasio" after his native city, Chiavasso. Its great popularity is attested by the fact that it went through at least thirty-one edi- tions from 1476 to 1520. A like popularity was_ en- joyed by the "Summa casuum" of the Franciscan, J. B. Trovamala, which appeared a few years later (1484) and, after being revised by the author himself, in 1495, bore the title of "Summa rosella". One of the last and most renowned of these simnnce was prob- ably the "Summa Silvestrina" of the Dominican Sil- vester Prierias (d. 1523), after which moral theology began to be treated in a different manner. The sumnuE here mentioned, being exclusively UTitten for the practical use of confessors, did not spurn the more elementarj' form; but they represented the results of a thorough, scientific study, which produced not only writings of this kind, but also other systematic works of a profound scholarship.

The twelfth centurj- witnessed a busy activity in speculative theologj', which centred about the cathe- dral and monastic schools. These produced men like Hugh and Richard of St. Victor, and especially Hugh's pupil, Peter the Lombard, called the Master of the Sentences, who flourished in the cathedral school of Paris towards the middle of the century, and whose "Libri sententiarum" served for several centuries as the standard text -book in theological lecture-halls. In those days, however, when dangerous heresies against the fimdamental dogmas and mysteries of the Christian faith began to ai>pcar, the moral part of (he Christian doctrine received scant treatment; Peter the

Lombard incidentally discusses a few moral questions, as e. g., about sin, while speaking of creation and the original state of man, or more in particular, while treating of original sin. Other questions, e. g., about the freedom of our actions and the nature of human actions in general, are answered in the doctrine on Christ, where he discusses the knowledge and the will of Christ. Even the renowned commentator of the "Sentences", Alexander of Hales, O. Min., does not yet seriously enter into Christian morals. The work of constructing moral theology as a speculative science was at last undertaken and completed bj- that great luminarj' of theologj', St. Thomas of Aquin, to whose "Summa theologica" we referred above. Aside from this masterpiece, of which the second part and portions of the third pertain to morals, there are several minor works extant which bear a moral and ascetical char- acter; the last-named branch was cultivated with extraordinarj' skill by St. Bonaventure of the Fran- ciscan Order, though he did not equal the sj'stematic genius of St. Thomas.

This and the subsequent centuries produced a num- ber of prominent theologians, some of whom con- tested various doctrines of Aquinas, as Duns Scotus and his adherents, while others followed in his foot- steps and wrote commentaries on his works, as iEgi- dius Romanus and Capreolus. Nevertheless, purely moral-theological questions were rarelj- made the sub- ject of controversj' during this time; a new epoch in the method of moral theology did not da^^'n until after the Council of Trent. However, there are two ex- tremely fertile \\Titers of the fifteenth centurj' who not onlj' exerted a powerful influence on the advancement of theology but raised the standard of practical hfe. Thej' are Dionj'sius the Carthusian and St. Antoni- nus, Bishop of Florence. The former is well known for his ascetical works, while the latter devoted him- self to the practice of the confessional and the ordinary work of the pastor. His "Summa theologica'' be- longs speciaUj' to our subject. It went through sev- eral editions, and A. Ballerini's revision of it, which appeared in 1740 at Florence, contains four folios. The third volume treats chieflj' of ecclesiastical law; it discusses at great length the legal position of the Church and its penal code. A few chapters of the first volume are devoted to the psj'chological side of man and his actions. The remainder of the whole work is a commentarj', from the purelj' moral stand- point, on the second part of St. Thomas's "Summa theologica", to which it constantly refers. It is not a mere theoretical explanation, but is so replete with juridical and casuistical details that it maj' be called an inexliaustible fountain for manuals of casuistry. How highlj' the practical wisdom of Antoninus was esteemed even during his lifetime, is attested bj' the surname "Antoninus consiliorum ", Antoninus of good counsel, given to him in the Roman Breviarj'.

A new life was breathed into the Cathohc Church bj' the Council of Trent. Reformation of morals gave a fresh impetus to theological science. These had graduaUj' fallen from the high level to which they had risen at the time of St. Thomas; the desire of solid advancement had frequentlj- given place to seeking after cle\'er argumentations on unimportant ques- tions. The sixteenth centiu-j' witnessed a complete change. Even before the coimcil convened, there were eminent scholars of a serious turn of mind as Thomas of Vio (usuallj' called Cajctanus\ Victoria, and the two Sotos, all men whose solid knowledge of theology proved of immense benefit to the Council itself. Their example was followed by a long series of excellent scholars, especiallj' Dominicans and mem- bers of the newly-founded Society of Jesus. It was above all the systematic side of moral theology which was now taken up with renewed zeal. In former cen- turies, Peter the Lombard's "Sentences" had been the universal text-book, and more prominent theo-