Page:Catholic Encyclopedia, volume 14.djvu/662

 THEOLOG7

602

THEOLOGY

turn our attention to His image, that is, man, inas- much as he also is the principle of his actions in virtue of his free will and his power over his own actions." He includes all tliis in theology, not only because it is viewed as the object of positive Divine Revelation (I, Q. i, a. 3), but also because God always is the principal object, for "theology treats all things in their relation to God, either in as far as they are God Himself or are directed towards God as their origin or last end" (I, Q. i, a. 7). "Since it is the chief aim of theology to communicate the knowledge of God, not only as He is in Himself but also as the beginning and end of all things and particularly of rational creatures . . ., we shall speak first of God, secondly of the ten- dency of the rational creature towards God", etc. (I, Q. ii, proem.). These words point out the scope and the subject-matter of the moral part of theology. Sudrez, who pregnantly calls this tendency of the creatures towards God "the return of the creatures to God", shows that there is no contradiction in desig- nating man created after the image of God, endowed with reason and free will and exercising these facul- ties, as the object of moral theologj^, and God as the object of entire theology. "If we are asked to name the proximate object of moral theology, we shall un- doubtedly say that it is man as a free agent, who seeks his happiness by his free actions; but if we are asked in what respect this object must be treated chiefly, we shall answer that this must be done with respect to God as his last end."

A detailed account of the wide range of moral theology may be found in the analytical index of Pars Secunda of St. Thomas's "Summa theologica". We must confine ourselves to a brief summary. The first question treats of man]s last end, eternal happi- ness, its nature and possession. Then follows an ex- amination of human acts in themselves and their vari- ous subdivisions, of voluntary and involuntary acts, of the moral uprightness or malice of both interior and exterior acts and their consequences; the passions in general and in particular; the habits or permanent qualities of the human soul, and the general questions about virtues, vices, and sins. Under this last title, while enquiring into the causes of sin, the author embodies the doctrine on original sin and its conse- quences. This portion might, however, be with equal right assigned to dogmatic theology in the stricter meaning of the word. Although St. Thomas regards sin chiefly as a transgression of the law, and in par- ticular of the "lex ajterna" (Q. ii, a. 6), stifl he places the chapters on the laws after the section on sin; because sin, a free human act like any other human act, is first discussed from the standpoint of its sub- jective principles, viz. knowledge, will, and the ten- dency of the will; only after this are the human actions viewed with regard to their objective or ex- terior principles, and the exterior principle, by which human actions are judged not merely as human, but as moral actions, either morallj' good or morally bad, is the law. Since morality is conceived by him as supernatural morality, which exceeds the nature and the faculties of man, Divine grace, the other ex- terior principle of man's morally good actions, is dis- cussed after the law. In the exordium to (J. xc, St. Thomas states his division briefly as follows: "The exterior princijile which moves us to good actions is God; He instructs us by His law and aids us with His grace. Hence we shall speak first of the law, sec- on<iIy of Kriicc."

The foiliiwiiig volume is wholly devoted to the special qui-stions, in the order given by St. Thomas in the prologue: "After a cin'.'^ory glance at the virtues, vices, and the moral princi[)los in gciu-ral. it is incum- bent on us to consider the various points in detail. Moral discussions, if satisfii'd willi generalities, are of little value, because actions tnuch particular, indi- vidual things. When there is question of morals, we

may consider individual actions in two ways : one, by examining the matter, i. e., by discussing the different virtues and vices; another, by inquiring into the vari- ous avocations of individuals and their states of life." St. Thomas then goes on to discuss the whole range of moral theology from both these standpoints. First, he closely scrutinizes the various virtues, keeping in view the Divine aids, and the sins and vices opposed to the respective virtues. He examines first the three Divine virtues which are wholly supernatural and embrace the vast field of charity and its actual prac- tice; then he passes to the cardinal virtues with their auxihary and allied virtues. The volume concludes with a discussion of the particular states of hfe in the Church of God, including those which suppose an extraordinary, Divine guidance. This last part, therefore, discusses subjects which specifically belong to mystical or ascetical theology, such as prophecy and extraordinary modes of prayer, but above all the active and the contemplative life. Christian perfec- tion, and the religious state in the Church. The con- tents of a modern work on moral theology, as, for instance, that of Slater (London, 1909), are: Human acts, conscience, law, sin, the virtues of faith, hope, charity; the precepts of the Decalogue, including a special treatise on justice; the commandments of the Church; duties attached to particular states or offices; the sacraments, in so far as their administration and reception are a means of moral reform and rectitude; ecclesiastical laws and penalties, only in so far as they affect conscience; these laws forming properly the subject-matter of canon law, in so far as they govern and regulate the Church as an organization, its mem- bership, ministry, the relations between hierarchy, clergy, religious orders, laity, or of spiritual and temporal authority.

One circumstance must not be overlooked. Moral theology considers free human actions only in their relation to the supreme order, and to the last and highest end, not in their relation to the proximate ends which man may and must pursue, as for instance political, social, economical. Economics, politics, social science are separate fields of science, not sub- divisions of moral science. Nevertheless, these special sciences must also be guided by morals, and must subordinate their specific principles to those of moral theology, at least so far as not to clash with the latter. Man is one being, and all his actions must finally lead him to his last and highest end. Therefore, various proximate ends must not turn him from this end, but must be made subservient to it and its attainment. Hence moral theology surveys all the individual relations of man and passes judgment on political, economical, social questions, not with regard to their bearings on politics and economy, but with regard to their influence upon a moral life. This is also the reason why there is hardly another science that touches other spheres so closely as does moral theologj', and why its sphere is more extensive than that of any other. This is true inasmuch as moral theology has the eminently practical scope of instructing and forming spiritual directors and con- fessors, who must be familiar with human conditions in their relation to the moral law, and advise persons in every state and situation.

The maimer in which moral theology treats its subject-matter, must be, as in theology generally, chiefly positive, that is, drawing from Revelation and theological sources. Starting from this positive foundation, reason al.-^o comes into play q\iite exten- sively, especially .-^ince the whole ."lubject-matter of natural ethics has been raised to the level of super- natural morals. It is true reason nuist he illumined by supernal ur.al faith, but when ilhmiined its duty is to ex-7)lain, prove, and defend most of the principles of moral theology.

From what has been said it is manifest that the

I