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 THEOLOGY

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THEOLOGY

other lines also both these movements produced good effects. While in the period of the Renaissance the revival of classical studies gave new vigour to exegesis and patrology, the Reformation stimulated the universities which had remained Cathohc, especially in Spain (Salamanca, Aloald, Coimbra) and in the Netherlands (Louvain), to put forth an enthusiastic activity in intellectual research. Spain, which had fallen behind during the Middle Ages, now came boldly to the front. The Sorbonne of Paris regained its lost prestige only towards the end of the sixteenth century. Among the religious orders the newly-founded Society of Jesus probably con- tributed inost to the revival and growth of theology. Schceben distinguishes five epochs in this period.

(a) First Epoch: Preparation (I.5OO7I57O).— It was only by a slow process that Catholic theology rose from the dejjths into which it had fallen. The rise of the Reformation (1517) had inflicted .serious wounds on the Church, and the defection of so many priests deprived her of the natural resources on which the study of theology necessarily depends. Never- theless the list of the loyal contains many brilliant names, and the controversial works of those times include more than one valuable monograph. It was but natural that the whole literature of this period should bear an apologetical and controversial character and should deal with those subjects which had been attacked most bitterly: the rule and sources of faith, the Church, grace, the sacraments, especially the holy Eucharist. Numerous defenders of the faith arose in the very country which had given birth to the Reformation: John Eck (d. 1543), Cochlaeus (d. 1552), Staphylus (d. 1564), James of Hoog- straet (d. 1527)," John Cropper (d. 1559), Albert Pighius (d. 1542), Cardinal Hosius (d. 1579), Martin Cromer (d. 1589), and Peter Canisius (d. 1.597). The last-named gave to the Catholics not only his world-renowned catechism, but also a most valuable Mariology. With pride and enthusiasm we look upon England, where the two noble martyrs John Fisher., Bishop of Rochester (d. 1535), and Thomas More (d. 1535) championed the cause of the Catholic faith with their pen, where Cardinal Pole (d. 1568), Stephen Gardiner (d. 1555), and Cardinal William Allen (d. 1594), men who combined refinement with a solid education, placed their learning at the service of the persecuted Church, while the Jesuit Nicholas Saimders WTote one of the best treatises on the Church. In Belgium the profes.sors of the University of Louvain opened new paths for the study of theol- ogy; foremost among them were: Huardus Tapper (d. 1559), John Driedo (d. 1.535), Jodocus Ravesteyn (d. 1570), John Hessels (d. 1566), John Molanus (d. 1585), and Garetius (d. 1571). To the last.- named we owe an excellent treatise on the holy Eu- charist. In France James Merlin, Christopher Chef- ontaines (d. 1595), and Gilbert Genebrard (d. 1597) rendered great services to dogmatic theology. Syl- vester Pierias (d. 1.523), Ambrose Catharinus (d. 1553), and Cardinal Seripandus are the boast of Italy. But, above all other countries, Spain is dis- tinguished by a veritable galaxy of brilliant names: .\lphonsus of Castro (d. 1558), Michael de Medina (d. 1578), Peter de Soto (d. 1563). Some of their works have remained classics up to our own times, as "De natura et gratia" (Venice, 1547) of Dominic Soto; "De iustiflcatione libriXV" (Venice, 1546) of Andrew Vega; "De locis theologieis" (Salamanca, 1563) of Melchior Cano.

(b) Second Epoch: Late Scholasticism at its Height (1570-1660). — Even in the preceding epoch the sessions of the Council of Trent (154.5-1563) had exerted a beneficial influence on the character and extent of dogmatic Uterature. After the close of the council there sprang up everywhere a new life and a mar\'ellous activity in theology which recalls XIV.— 38

the best days of the Patristic Era and of Scholasticism but surpasses both by the wealth and variety of its hterary iiroductions. We are not here concerned with the industry displayed in Biblical and exegetical research. But the achievements of controversial, positive, and scholastic theology deserve a passing notice.

(i) Controversial theology was carried to the highest perfection by Cardinal Bellarmine (d. 1621). There is no other theologian who has defended almost the whole of Catholic theology against the attacks of the Reformers with such clearness and convincing force. Other theologians remarkable for their masterly defence of the Catholic Faith were tlie Spanish Jesuit Gregory of Valencia (d. 1603) and his pupils Adam Tanner (d. 1635) and James Gretser (d. 1625), who taught in the University of Ingol- stadt. To the Englishman Thomas Stapleton (d. 1598) we owe a work, unsurpassed even in our days, on the material and formal principle of Protestantism. Cardinal du Perron (d. 1618) of France successfully entered the arena against James I of England and Philip Mornay, and wrote a splendid treatise on the holy Eucharist. The eloquent pupit orator Bossuet (d. 1627) wielded his pen in refuting Protestantism from the standpoint of history. The " Pra'.scrijjtiones Catholica;", a voluminous work of the Italian Gra- vina (7 vols., Naples, 1619-39), possesses enduring value. Martin Becanus (d. 1624), a Belgian Jesuit, published his handy and well-known "Manuale controversiarum". In Holland the defence of rehgion was carried on by the two learned brothers Adrian (d. 1669) and Peter de Walemburg (d. 1675), both auxiliary bishops of Cologne and both contro- versialists, who easily ranked among the best. Even the distant East was represented in the two Greek converts, Peter Arcudius (d. 1640) and Leo Allatius (d. 1669).

(ii) The develojiment of positive theology went hand in hand with the progress of research into the Patristic Era and into the history of dogma. These studies were esiwcially cultivated in France and Belgium. A number of scholars, thoroughly versed in history, published in excellent monographs the results of their investigations into the history of particular dogmas. Morinus (d. 16.59) made the Sacrament of Penance the subject of special study; Isaac Habert (d. 1668), the doctrine of the Greek Fathers on grace; Hallier (d. 1659), the Sacrament of Holy orders; Garnier (d. 1681), Pelagianism; De- champs (d. 1701), Jansenism; Tricas.sinns (d. 1681), St. Augustine's doctrine on grace. Unfortunately, among the highly gifted representatives of this historico-dogmatical school were to be foimd men who deviated more or less seriously from the imchangeable teachings of the Catholic Church, as Baius, Jansenius the Younger, Launoy, de Marca, Dupin, and others. Though Nicole and Arnauld were Jansenists, yet their monumental work on the Eucharist, "Perp6- tuitd de la foi" (Paris, l69-74), has not yet lo,st its value. But there are two men, the Jesuit Petavius (d. 1647) and the Oratorian Louis Thomassin (d. 1695), who by their epoch-making works: "Dog- mata theologica", placed jiosilivc llieology on a new basis without di.sregarding the speculative element.

(iii) So great was the enthusiasm with which the religious orders fostered scholastic theology and brought it to perfection that the golden era of the thirteenth century seemed to have once more re- turned. It was no mere chance that St. Thomas and St. Bonaventure were just then iirodaiined Doctors of the Church, the first by Pius V, the other by Sixtus V. liy these jjajial acts the two greatest luminaries of the past were projmsed to the theolo- gians as models to be zealously imitated. Thomism, guarded and cherished by the Dominicans, proved anew its full vitahty. At the head of the Thomistic