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 SPINOZA

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SPINOZA

sions which he now made to the Protestants of Austria-Hungary, such as Commumon under both species, freedom for priests to marry, Mass in the German language, and suspension of the Tridentine decrees until a new council was held, were rejected by Rome.

Landwehr, Spinolas Unionsbestrebungen in Brandenburg in Mirkischc Forschungen, XX (Berlin, 1S87); Kiesl, Der Friedens- plan des Leibniz zur Wiedervereinignng der getrennieil christlichen Kirchen (Paderborn, 1904) ; Knopfler in Allg. Deutsche Biog., XXXV. 202^.

Michael Ott.

Spinoza (d'Espinosa, Despinoza), Benedict, b. at Amsterdam, 24 Nov., 1632; d. at The Hague, 21 Feb., 1677. He belonged to a family of Jewish mer- chants of moderate means, and was originally called Baruch, a name that he later translated into its Latin equivalent Bene- dict His father's name was Mi- ll ii 1 his mother. Ml hids second 1 1 « Ls called 11 mi Deb or a. In 1641 Michael nun led a third \\ ife n ho was n imed Hester de 1 spmosa. The t Linih probably (1 some Con- xion with the il town of K.S- I I m Spanish Ik M unl with I 111 celebrated M irrano family th(re called Es- nosa. (The Niarranos were .Spanish Jews compelled to con- form outwardly to Christianity.) Haiuch attracted attention in the school for Por- tuguese Jews at Amsterdam by his talents and application to study. He made rapid progress in Hebrew and the study of the Talmud, and his teachers, especially Rabbi Saul Levi Morteira, had the greatest hopes of his future. It was intended that he should become a rabbi. The subtle methods of the teachers of the Talmud undoubtedly trained his intellect and led it particularly to reasoning by analogy. The moral teaching of the Haggada had a great and permanent influence upon his code of living. However, the ditriculties in regard to the Scriptures, which he deiluccd from what he read, made a stronger impression upon him than their solutions. Thus he w;is a troublesome and critical pupil, although at the same time a modest one. He read and despised the Cabalists; yet traces of their influence are recognizable in his philosophy; mention should here be particularly made of the book called "Zohar" and of Herrera's work "Porta co'li". He studied industriously the Jewish wTiters on the philos- ophy of religion, especially Maimonides, Gersonides, Chasdai Kreskas, and Ibn Ksra, and later adopted much from them. The writings of the Arabian philosopher Al Farabi and of his commentator Ismail show striking similarities, even in the smallest details, with the later system of Spinoza. There are also clear evidences of connexion between the strange work of Ibn Tofall, the story of "Hai Ibn Joktan, and the conceptions of Spinoza.

About 16.51 Spinoza, unable to see his way clearly, seems for a short time to have abandoned metaphysi- cal studies, and to have fought a hard battle with his

passions. Even at this time he was looked upon with suspicion by orthodox Jews. He now devoted him- self to the natural philosophy of Descartes. Coming back in this way to metaphysics, he completely over- came the scepticism, and, resuming his first studies, began to lay the foundation of his new system. The philosophy of Descartes aided him in recasting the notions which he had previously acquired. After the death of his father in 16.54, Spinoza was almost completely cast off by his family and, having no means, taught in the private Humanistic school of the ex-Jesuit and freethinker Franz van den Enden. Here he perfected himself in Latin and continued his philosophical investigations by the study of St. Augustine, the Stoics, Scholasticism (in a somewhat su])erficial manner), the philosophy of the Renaissance and that of some modern writers, especially of Hobbes. His later psychology shows extraordinary similarities with the teachings of Marcus Marci and "of Glisson.

Spinoza now frequented almost exclusively the so- ciety of Christians, i. e. of the free-thinking sort, and especially of Mennonites. His lifelong friendships, as known from his letters, date in part from this period. In 16.56 he was formally expelled from the Jewish community and soon afterwards from Amsterdam. A somewhat legendary attack upon his life is said to have been made about this time. He never became a Christian. He now began to dictate in Latin some of the principles of his philosophy to a company of pupils at Ouderkerk near Amsterdam. A Dutch translation of this dictation exists in two manuscripts which were discovered in 18.53 and 1861 by Friedrich Muller, a Dutch bookseller. The translation as found in these manuscripts had been largely revised, had notes that were traceable, however, to Spinoza himself, and had been somewhat unskilfully handled by an editor. Since the discovery the manuscripts have been pub- lished a number of times both in the original text and in translations. The characteristics of the later sys- tem of the "Ethics" are evident in this "Korte Ver- handeling van God, de Mensch, en deszelos Wel- stand ". But neither the doctrine of the one and only Divine substance, nor the higher unity of "exten- sion" and "thought" in the infinite and the finite, nor the instinct of self-preservation, is clearly expressed in it. Spinoza, obliged to seek some other means of support, became a very skilful grinder of lenses; his work commanded good prices. About 1660 he re- tired to the village of Rijnsburg near Leyden. The little house in which he hved still stands, and has been bought by admirers of the philosopher; it contains a fine library. Here Spinoza devoted himself to a re- vision of the "Korte Verhandeling" which was never completed. The result of these labours was an im- portant unfinished treatise "De intellectus emenda- tione", with preparations for his great work, the "Ethics", and the development of the "geometrical method". While at Rijnsburg he was greatly stim- ulated in his work by the reports of the lectures of the professors of philosophy of Leyden (among whom should be included Geulincx), which were brought to him by students of the university. While at this vil- lage he also became acquainted with the celebrated Stensen, and had here a iiupil iiame( 1 Case;irius, whom he instructed in the Cartesian philosophy. In 1663 Spinoza pubhshed a book under his own name called "Renati des Cartes principiorum [ihilosophia? Pars I et II, more geometrico demonstrata;", and a supple- ment to this under the title, "Cogitata mctaphysica". The work does not give Spinoza's own philosophy, but glimpses of his views may be found in it.

While at Rijnsburg Spinoza also taught by corre- opondence -some young friends at Amsterdam who had formed a Spinoza club. In the spring of 1663 he moved to Voorberg, near The Hague. His acquaint- ance with scholars and statesmen increased. He was witty, was esteemed as a great Bibhcal critic and