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French in 1806, all houses were dissolved, except those in Sicily. The superior in Italy during these changes was the Venerable Giuseppe M. Pignatolli (q. v.). In their zeal for the re-establishment of the Society some of the ex-Jesuits united themselves into congregations, which might, while avoiding the now unpopular name of Jesuits, preserve some of its essential features. Thus arose the Fathers of the Faith (Peres de la Foi), founded with papal sanction by Nicolas Paccanari in 1797. A somewhat similar congregation, called the "Fathers of the Sacred Heart", had been commenced in 1794 in Belgium, under Pere Charles de Broglie, who was succeeded by Pere Joseph Varin as superior. By wish of Pius VI, the two congregations amalgamated, and were gen- erally known as the Paccanarists. They soon spread into "many lands; Paccanari, however, did not prove a good superior, and seemed to be working against a reunion with the Jesuits still existing in Russia; this caused Pere Varin and others to leave him. Some of them entered the Society in Russia at once; and at the Restoration the others joined en masse. (See S.4CRED Heart of Je.sus, Society of the.)

The Restored Society. — Pius VII h.ad resolved to restore the Society during his captivity in France; and after his return to Rome did so with little delay, 7 August, 1814, by the Bull "Solhcitudo omnium ecclesiarum," and therewith the general in Riissia, Thaddteus Brzozowski, acquired universal jurisdic- tion. After the permission to continue given by Pius VI, the first Russian congregation had elected as vicar-general Stanislaus Czerniewicz (17 Oct., 1782-7 July, 1785), who was succeeded by Gabriel Lenkiewicz (27 Sept., 178.5-10 Nov., 1798) and Francis Kareu (1 Feb., 1799-20 July, 1802). On the receipt of the Brief "Catholics Fidei", of 7 March, 1801, his title was changed from vicar-general to general. Gabriel Gruber succeeded (10 Oct., 1802-2(5 March, 180.5), and was followed by Thad- doeus Brzozowski (2 Sept., 1805). Almost simul- taneously with the death of the latter, 5 Feb., 1820, the Russians, who had banished the Jesuits from St. Petersburg in 1815, expelled them from the whole country. It seems a remarkable providence that Russia", contrary to aU precedent, should have pro- tected the Jesuits just at the time when all other nations turned against them, and reverted to her normal hostility when the Jesuits began to find toler- ation elsewhere. Upon the decease of Brzozowski, Father Petrucci, the vicar, fell under the influence of the still powerful anti-Jesuit party at Rome, and proposed to alter some points in the Institute. The twentieth general congregation took a severe view of his proposals, expelled him from the order, and elected Father Aloysius Fortis (18 Oct., 1820-27 Jan., 1829) (q. v.); John Roothaan succeeded (9 July, 1829-8 May, 1S53); and was followed by Peter Beckx (q. v.) (2 July, 18.53-4 March, 1887). Anton Maria Anderledy, vicar-general on 11 May, 1884, became general on Fr. Beckx's death and died on 18 Jan., 1892; Luis Martin (2 Oct., 1892-18 Apr., 1906). Father Martin commenced a new series of histories of the Society, to be based on the increased materials now available, and to deal with many problems about which okler annalists, Orlandini and his successors, were not curious. Volumes by Astrain, Duhr, Fou- queray, Hughes, Kroess, Tacchi-Venturi have ap- peared. The present general, Frances Xavier Wernz, was elected on S Sept., lOOG.

Though the Jesuits of the nineteenth century can- not show a martyr-roll as brilliant as that of their pre- decessors, the persecuting laws pas.sed against them surpa.ss in number, extent, and continuance those endured by previous generations. The practical exclusion from university teaching, the (ililigiitidii of milit.ary service in many countries, the wlmlcsale confiscations of religious property, and the dispersion

of twelve of its oldest and once most flourishing prov- inces are very serious hindrances to religious voca- tions. On a teaching order such blows fall very heavily. The cause of trouble has generally been due to that propaganda of irreligion which was developed during the Revolution and is still active through Freemasonry in those lands in which the Revolution took root.

France. — This is plainly seen in France. In that country the Society began after 1815 with the direc- tion of some petits seminaires and congregations, and by giving missions. They were attacked by the Liberals, especially by the Comte de Montlosier in 1823 and their schools, one of which, St-Acheul, already contained 800 students, were closed in 1829. The Revolution of July (1830) brought them no immediate relief; but in the visitation of cholera in 1832 the Fathers pressed to the fore, and so began to recover influence. In 1845 there was another attack by Thiers, which drew out the answer of de Ravignan (q. v.). The Revolution of 1848 at first sent them again into exile, but the liberal measures which succeeded, especially the freedom of teaching, enabled them to return and to open many schools (1850). .In the later days of the Empire greater difficulties were raised, but with the advent of the Third Repubhe (1870) these restrictions were removed and progress continued, until, after threatening meas- ures in 1878, came the decree of 29 March, 1880, issued by M. Jules Ferry. This brought about a new dispersion and the substitution of staffs of non-religious teachers in the Jesuit colleges. But the French Government did not press their enact- ments, and the Fathers returned by degrees; and before the end of the century their houses and schools in France were as prosperous as ever. Then came the overwhelming Associations laws of M. Waldeck- Rousseau, leading to renewed though not complete dispersions and to the reintroduction of non-reli- gious staffs in the colleges. The right of the order to hold property was also violently sujipressed ; and, by a refinement of cruelty, any property suspected of being held by a congregation may now be confiscated, unless it is proved 7wt to be so held. Other clauses of this law penalize any meeting of the members of a con- gregation. The order is under an iron hand from which no escape is, humanly speaking, possible. For the moment nevertheless public opinion disapproves of its rigid execution, and thus far, in spite of all sufferings, of the dispersal of all houses, the confisca- tion of churches, and the loss of practically all prop- erty and schools, the numbers of the ortler have been maintained, nay sUghtly increased, and so too have the opportunities for work, especially in hterature and theology, etc. (See also Carayon; Deschamps; Du Lac; Olivaint; Ravignan.)

Spain. — In Spain the course of events has been similar. Recalled by Ferdinand VII in 1815, the Society was attacked by the Revolution of 1820; and twenty-five Jesuits were slain at Madrid in 1822. The Fathers, however, returned after 1823 and took part in the management of the militarv school and the College of Nobles at Madrid (1827). But in 1834 they were again attacked at ^Iadrid, fourteen were killed, and the whole order was banished on 4 Jidy, 1835, by a Liberal ministry. After 184.8 they began to return and were re-settled after the Concordat, 26 Nov., 1852. At the Revolution of 1868 they were again banished (12 Oct.), but after a few j-ears they were allowed to come back, and have since made great progress. At the present time, however, another expulsion is threatened (1912). In Portugal the Jesuits were recalled in 1829, dispersed again in 1S34; but afterwards returned. Though they were not formally sanctidued by law they had a large college and several churches, from which, however, they were driven out in October, 1910, with great violence and cruelty.