Page:Catholic Encyclopedia, volume 13.djvu/673

 SCOTISM

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SCOTISM

Jesuit philosophers and theologians adopted a series of the Scotist propositions. Later authorities reject in part many of these propositions and partly accept them, or at least do not directly oppose them. This refers mostly to doctrines touching the deepest phil- osophical and theological questions, on which a com- pletely certain judgment is difficult to obtain. The following are generally rejected: formahsm with the distinctio formalis, the spiritual matter of angels and of the soul, the view that the metaphysical essence of God consists in radical infinity, that the relationes trinitarioe are not a perfection sim-pliciter simplex; that the Holy Ghost would be a distinct Person from the Son, even though He proceeded from the Father alone; that the angels can naturaliter know the secreta cordium (secret thoughts); that the soul of Christ is formally holy and impeccable, not by the very fact of the hjT)ostatic union, but through another gratia areata (the visio heatifica) ; that the merits of Christ are not simpliciter et intrinsece, but only extrinsece and secundum quid, infinite; that there are indifferent acts in individuo; that the gratia sanctificnns and the chori- tas habitualis are the same habitus; that circumcision is a sacrament in the strict sense; that transubstantia- tion makes the Body of Christ present per modum ad- duclionis, etc. Another series of propositions was misunderstood even by Catholic theologians, and then in this false sense rightly rejected — e. g. the doctrine of the univocatio entis, of the acceptation of the merits of Christ and man, etc. Of the propositions which have been accepted or at least favourably treated by a large number of scholars, we may mention: the Scotist view of the relation between essentia and exist- entia; that between ens and nihil the distance is not infinite but only as great as the reality that the par- ticular ens possesses; that the accidens as such also possesses a separate existence (e. g. the accidentia of bread and wine in the Eucharist) ; that not only God, but also man can produce an esse simpliciter (e. g. man by generation); hcecceitas as the principium individuationis. Also many propositions from psy- chology: e. g. that the powers of the soul are not merely accidents even natural and necessary of the soul, that they are not really distinct from the sub- stance of the soul or from one another; that son.se- perception is not purely passive; that the intellect can recognize the singular directly, not merely indi- rectly; that the soul separated from the body forms its knowledge from things themselves, not merely from the ideas which it has acquired through life or which God infuses into it; that the soul is not united with the body for the purpose of acquiring knowledge through the senses, but for the purpose of forming with it a new species, i. e. human nature; that the moral virtues are not necessarily inter se connexw, etc. Also many propositions concerning the doctrine of the angels: e. g. that the angels can be numerically dis- tinct from one another, and therefore several angels can belong to the same species; that it is not merely through their activity or the appHcation of their powers that angels can be in a given place; that they cannot go from place to place without having to tra- verse the intermediate space; that they do not ac- quire all natural knowledge from infused ideas only, but also through contemplation of things themselves; that their will must not necessarily will good or evil, according as it has once decided. Furthermore, that Adam in the state of innocence could sin venially ; that mortal sin, as an offence against God, is not in- trinsically and simpliciter, but only extrinsically in- finite; that Christ would have become man, even if Adam had not sinned; that the human nature of Christ had its proper created existence; that in Chri.st there were two filiationes, or sonships, a human and a Divine; that the sacraments have only moral causal- ity; that, formally and in the last analysis, heavenly happiness consists not in the visio Dei, but in the

fruitio; that in hell venial sin is not punished with everlasting punishment; etc.

Scotism thus exercised also positively a wholesome influence on the development of philosophy and the- ology; its importance is not, as is often asserted, purely negative — that is, it does not consist only in the fact that it exercised a wholesome criticism on St. Thomas and his school, and thus preserved science from stag- nation. A comparison of the Scotist teaching with that of St. Thomas has been often attempted — for example, in the above-mentioned work of Hauzeur at the end of the first volume; by Sarnano, "Concili- atio omnium controversiarum etc." (1589 — ). It may be admitted that in many cases the difference is rather in the terminology, or that a reconciliation is possible, if one emphasize certain parts of Scotus or St. Thomas, and pass over or tone down others. However, in not a few points the contradiction still remains. Generally speaking, Scotism found its sup- porters within the Franciscan Order; certainly, op- position to the Dominicans, i. e. to St. Thomas, made many members of the order disciples of Scotus. How- ever, this does not mean that the foundation and de- velopment of Scotism is to be referred to the rivalry existing between the two orders. Even Aquinas found at first not a few opponents in his order, nor did all his fellow-Dominicans follow him in every particular (e. g. Durandus of St. Pourgain, d. 1332). The Scot- ist doctrines were also supported by many Minorites, of whose purity of purpose there can be no doubt, and of whom many have been included in the catalogue of saints and beati (e. g. Sts. Bernardino, John Capis- tran, Jacob of the March, Angelusof Chiavasso,etc.). Furthermore, Scotism found not a few supporters among secular professors and in other rehgious orders (e. g. the Augustinians, Servites, etc.), especially in England, Ireland, and Spain. On the other hand, not all the Minorites were Scotists. Many attached themselves to St. Bonaventure, or favoured an eclec- ticism from Scotus, St. Thomas, St. Bonaventure, etc. The Conventuals seem to have adhered most faith- fully to Scotus, particularly at the University of Padua, where many highly esteemed teachers lec- tured. Scotism found least support among the Ca- puchins, who preferred St. Bonaventure. Besides Scotus, the order had other highly-prized teachers, such as Alexander of Hales, Richard of Middleton, and especially St. Bonaventure (proclaimed Doctor ecclesicB by Sixtus V in 1587), the asceti co-mystical trend of whose theology was more suited to wide circles in the order than the critical, dispassionate, and often abstruse teaching of the Subtle Doctor. In Spain the martyred tertiary. Blessed Raymund Lullus (d. 1315), also had many friends. It may be said that the whole order as such never had a uniform and special school of Scotists; the teachers, preachers, etc. were never compelled to espouse Scotism. His disciples did indeed call Scotus "Doctor noster", "Doctor (vol Magistor) Ordinis", but even among these many partly followed their own course (e. g. Petrus Aureolus), while Walter Burleigh (Burteus, d. about 1340) and still more so Occam were oppo- nents of Scotus.

It is only at the end of the fifteenth or the begin- ning of the sixteenth century that a special Scotist School can be spoken of. The works of the master were then collected, brought out in many editions, commentated, etc. Since 1501 we also find numerous regulations of general chapters recommending or di- rectly prescribing Scotism as the teaching of the order, although St. Bonaventure's writings were also to a great extent admitted (cf. Marian Fernandez Garcia, "Lex- icon scholasticum etc.", Quaracchi, 1910; "B. Joan. DunsScoti: Dererumprincipio etc.", Quaracchi, 1910, preface § 3, nn. 46 sqq., where many regulations of 1501-1907 are given). Scotism appears to have at- tained its greatest popularity at the beginning of the