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 SCHOOLS

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SCHOOLS

lars, who wish to employ themselves in teaching in the parochial schools in the future, and, if they find them worthy, to grant a testimonial or diploma of merit. Without this no priest may la%\-fully engage any teacher for his school, unless they have taught before the celebration of the Council. The diploma will be valid for five years. After this period, another and final examination will be required of the teachers.

" Besides this board for the examination of teachers for the whole diocese, the bishops, in accordance with the diversity of place or language, shall appoint sev- eral school ijoards, composed of one or several priests, to examine the schools in cities or rural districts. The duty of these boards shall be to visit and examine each school in their district once or even twice a year, and to transmit to the president of the diocesan board, for the information and guidance of the bishop, an accurate account of the state of the schools".

Only lay teachers and religious belonging to a dio- cesan commvmity were named as being bound by this legislation, but indirectly it affected all Catholic teachers. Owing to the lack of teachers, it was fre- quently found difficult to enforce the requirement of a diocesan diploma, to be gained by a formal examina- tion. It may be said, however, that the legislation of the Council had the desired effect. All the rehgious communities now have well-equipped normal schools, and candidates, unless they come with superior quali- fications, are usually required to complete the full curriculum. Summer normal schools are also con- ducted at the leading mother-houses, the courses last- ing for a month or six weeks. In many dioceses, too, summer institutes are held, the religious and lay teachers of the diocese being assembled for the purpose during a week or two at some convenient place.

Curriculum. — The curriculum of the parish school comprises eight elementary grades. There is a class in catechism daily, and Bible history is also taught several times a week. In the singing-class, devo- tional hymns are used, and the school-sessions are opened and closed by prayers or brief devotional ex- ercises. Outside of these religious instructions and practices, it may be said that the curriculum of the Catholic parish school does not differ much from the curriculum of the corresponding public school, except that there is a stronger tendency in the former to em- phasize the importance of those branches that are commonly designated as "the Three R's". Dis- tinctively Catholic textbooks are employed quite gen- erally, especially in the lower grades. Textbooks in common use in the public schools are, however, fre- quently used in the teaching of the purely secular sub- jects. In the matter of uniformity, some dioceses have gone much farl her than others. In some, a com- mon curriculum, with fixed recitation-periods, is pre- scribed for the schools, together with an authoriziul scries of textbooks; in others, a common curriculum is prescribed, but the selection of textbooks and the fixing of recitation-periods is left to the pastors and principals; in many others, again, the diocesan au- thorities have not imposed any official standards of uniformity in these respects, except in the matter of re- ligious instruction.

Organization ami Administralion. — Three elements of authority are concerned in the conduct of the parish schwjl, the p;i.st or, the superiors of the teachers, and the bishop. 'I'he pjuitor has, besides the finantrial responsibility, immediate supervision over the school with respect to the faithful and (ifficient fulfilment of its work, and occupies by right the position of the schfKjl principal. Practically, however, he shares the responsibility of this position with the religious su- perior in charge of the school. The supervision of the work of the school, in most instances, is really left largely t-f) the imm«'diate religious superior. The higher religious superiors, having control of the sup- ply of teachers and of the teachers' training as well as a

supervision of the teaching in a large number of schools, enjoy a practical power over their schools that is comparable in some respects with that of the bishop. The bishop, nevertheless, possesses the supreme con- trol over all the school? of his diocese, subject only to the regulations of the Councils and of higher au- thority. It is chiefly from the bishops that move- ments looking towards the betterment of the schools have come. And the trend of Catholic school devel- opment is strongly towards an increase of the exer- cise of the episcopal authority over the schools.

Bishop Neumann of Philadelphia in 1852 at- tempted a diocesan organization of Catholic schools, by instituting a "Central Board of Education", to be composed of the pastor and two lay delegates from each of the parishes in Philadelphia, and to be pre- sided over by the bishop. But the project appears to have been in advance of the times. In 1879 Bishop Joseph Dwenger of Fort Wayne, Indiana, organized a school board, consisting of eleven members and a sec- retary', all being priests. The board was to have con- trol of studies and textbooks in the schools of the dio- cese, to examine teachers, and to gather statistical information about the schools. The effect was seen to be so wholesome that the Fort Wayne plan was adopted by the Fourth Provincial Council of Cin- cinnati in 1882, with an additional provision for de- pendent local school boards in the larger places. When the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore met, two years later, it practically adopted the Cincinnati plan for all the dioceses. Although the Council speaks only of a central "board of examination", and would appear, therefore, to limit the functions of this board to the examination and approval of teachers, it was expected, nevertheless, that more ample powers would be conferred on these boards by the bishops, and this in fact was done. Bishop Gilmour's "Con- stitution and By-Laws for the Government of the Parochial Schools" of Cleveland, issued in 1887, may be taken as typical of diocesan legislation generally in this regard. According to this "Constitution" the central board was to be made up of seven members, who were to be examiners of teachers as well as in- spectors of schools in their respective districts. The board was vested with full control over the parish schools, under the bishop. Local boards were also instituted, to consist of three, five, or seven members, who were to visit and examine each school within their respective localities at least once a year.

The board system represented an important ad- vance in the work of Catholic school organization, and had everywhere a quickening effect. It soon became evident, however, that th(> system was still far from perfect. The men select (>d to serve on the boards, while devoted to the interests of the schools, were too busily engaged with other duties to give more than a small share of their time to the work. Besides this, few if any of them had had any formal pedagogical training. There was need, it was seen, of an executive officer of the central Board who should be specially qualified for the work of inspection and supervision, and who should devote his entire time to this ta.sk. The New York school board took the lead in the matter, and in the year 1888 apjwinted the Rev. William J. Degnan as inspcfitor of schools. He was succeeded in the office the following year by the Kev. Mi<!hael J. Con- sidine, who served in this (^apjicity until tlie year 1!K)0. The title of inspee-tor was eluuiged to that of sujjerin- tendent. The Diocese of Omaha adopted the i)|;in in W.n. The Rev. John W. Shanahan, later Bishop of Harrisburg, was ajjpointed superintendent of schools for th(! Archdiocese of Philadelphia in 1894. Soon he added a new and important feature to the system; this was the appointment, for each teaching order in the diocese, of a community inspector of schools, the idea beinj? that the recommendations of the superintendent in regard to the teachers and