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 SCHOLLINER

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SCHOLS

Christian, seeking to expound anil justify Divine law and the Christian standard of morals, it is Aristote- lean. This is clear from the adoption and apphcation of the Aristotelean definition of virtue as the golden mean between two extremes. Fundamentally, the definition is eudemonistic. It rests on the conviction that the suiireme good of man is haii]Mness, that hap- piness is the realization, or comi)li"te actualization, of one's nature, and that virtue is an essential means to that end. But what is vague anil unsatisfactory in Aristotelean Eudemonism is made definite and safe in the Scholastic system, which determines the meaning of happiness and realization according to the Divine purpose in creation and the dignity to which man is destined as a child of God.

In their discussion of the problems of political phi- losophy the philosophers of the thirteenth century, while not discarding the theological views of St. Au- gustine contained in "The City of God", laid a new foundation for the study of political organizations by introducing Aristotle's scientific definition of the origin and purpose of civil society. IVIan, says St. Thomas, is naturally a social and political animal. By gi^•ing to human beings a nature which requires the co-operation of other human beings for its wel- fare, God ordained man for society, and thus it is His will that princes should go\'ernwith a view to the pub- lic welfare. The end for which the state exists is, then, not merely vivere but bene vivere. All that goes to make life better and happier is included in the Di- vine charter from which kings and rulers derive their authority. The Scholastic treatises on this subject and the commentaries on the "Politics" of Aristotle prepared the way for the medieval and modern dis- cu-ssions of political problems. In this department of thought, as in many others, the Schoolmen did at lea.st one service which posterity should appreciate: they strove to express in clear systematic form what was present in the consciousness of Christendom in their day.

HLstorj' of the word "Scholastic": Adlhoch, Prcvfaliones ad artU scholaMicm inter occidenlales fata (Brunn, 1896), 33 sqq.; Ueberweo, Grundriss der Gesch. der Phil., II (9 ed.. Berlin. 190.J), 158, 159.

History of Scholastic Philo.sophy: Turner, Htst. of Philos- ophy (Boston, 1903), 237-420; Townsevd, The Great Schoolmen of the Middle Ages (London, 1881); Hampden, The Scholastic Philosophy in Relation to Christian Theology (Oxford, 1833); Ueberweg, Op. cil., tr. Morris (New York, 1892); De Wulf, Hist, of Medieval Philosophy, tr. Coffey (London, 1909); Haur£ac, Hist, de la Phil. scol. (3 vols.. Paris. 1872-1880); Taylor. The Medieval Mirul, 2 vols. (London. 1911).

Scholastic Method: Grabmann, Die Gesch.der schol. Melhode, I (Freiburg, 1W9); Picavet, Abelard et Alexandre d' Hales, creiUeurs de la melliode scoUistique (Paris, 1896). For fuller bibliography see Grabmann, Op. cil., 50 sqq.

The contents of Scholastic philosophy are best learned from the original sources. Many of the works of the early .Schoolmen are U> he found in P. L. The works of the later Scholastics are accessible in standard editions of their opera omnia. Of Baum- ker and von Hertling'b series of texts, Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Phil, des M.-A. (Munster. 1891 sqq.), seven volumes have ap- peared, and the eighth Ls in course of publication (1911). The principal tenets of .Scholasticism are explained in Rickabv, Scholasticism (Lfjndon, 1908); Perrier, The Revival of SchoUis- tic PhiU.sophy in the XlXth Century (New York. 1909); Db Wllf, Scholasticism Old and New, tr. Coffey (Dublin, 1907). The Stonyhurst Series (Ixjndon, 1888 sqq.), comprising BoEDDf;R, Natural Theology; Clarke, Logic; Maker, Psychology; John RicKABY. First Principles; Idem. General Metaphysics; Joheph Rk.kaby. Mfjral Philosophy; Walker. Theories of Knowledge, and the Catholic University Series of textbooks (vol. I. Washing-

in its relation to modern thougl

epop

William Turner.

SchoUiner, Herman, theologian and historian, b. at Freising in Bavaria, 1.5 .January, 1722; d. at Welchf-nberg, 16 .July, 179.5. He entered the Bene- dictine abbey of Oberaltaich in 17:i8; sttidied phil- osophy and theology at Erfurt and Salzburg; wa.4 director of the house of studies of the Bavarian Beneflictines from 1752 to 17.57; professor of dog- matic thfology at Salzburg from 17.50 to 1706. He travelled to Vienna in the interejjts of his monas-

ter>' in 1770; became i)rior of his monaster^' in 1772; taught dogmatic theology at Ingolstadt from 1776 to 17S0; and became provost at Welchenborg in 1780. From 1759 he was a member of the Bavarian Academj'^ of Sciences. He is the author of about fifty theological and historical treatises. As member of the Bavarian Academy he wrote "Monumenta Niederalt:i('('iisia" and " Monumcnta (^beraltacensia, Elisabethcellensia (»t Ostcrhofcnsia", which form volumes XI (1-.340) and XII of "JMonumenta Boica". Other important works of his are: "De magi.stratuum ecclesiasticorun origine et creatione" (Stadtamhof, 17.57); "De disciplime arcani anti- quitate et usu" (Tegernsee, 17.55); "Ecclesia; orien- talis et occidentalis concordia in transsubstantiatione " (Ratisbon, 1756) ; " De hierarchia ecclesijE catholicaj" (Ratisbon, 1757); "Historia theologise christianae saecuh primi" (Salzburg, 1761); " Praelectiones the- ologiciE ad usum studii communis congregationis Benedictino-Bavaricae in XII tomos divisse" (Augs- burg, 1769), and numerous contributions to the " Abhandlungen der bayr. Akad. der Wissenschaften".

Lindner. SrhriftsteUer des Benediktiner Ordens in Bayern 17.W-1SS0, I (Ratisbon. 1880). 117-22; Westenrieder. Bei- trd'je zur valerldndischen HiMorie, VII. 393-0; Sattler. Col- lectaneen-Bldller zur Gesch. der ehemal. Benedikt. Universitdt Salzburg (Kempten, 1890). 407-73.

Michael Ott.

Schols, Charles Mathieu, b. of Catholic parents at Maastricht, Holland, 28 March, 1S49; d. at Delft, 17 March, 1897. At the age of eighteen he was sent to the polytechnical school at Delft, where he obtained the degree of civil engineer after a brilliant examination. A few months later he was appointed a teacher at the Royal Military Academy of Breda, where he published a highly-apj)reciated textbook on surveying — "Leerboek over landnieten en water- pas.sen" (Brerla, 1879). In 187-4 he submitted to the Royal Academy of Amsterdam a treatise on the errors in a plane and in space, and shortly afterwards another on the interpolation formula of Tchebychef, both treatises testifying to an uncommon degree of mathematical intuition. As early as 1878 he was of- fered the professorhip of geodesy and surveying at the polytechnical school at Delft. In 1880 he was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, in the transactions of which he published a series of important investigations, mostly connected with geodesy: on the calculation of distance and azimuth from longitude and latitude — "Berekening van afs- tand en azimuth uit lengte en breedte"; concerning the connexion of triangular nets of higher and lower order — "Over de aan.sluiting van een driehoekennet van lagere orde aan 3 punten van een net van hoogere orde"; on cartograjjliical j)rojections — "Studien van kaart-projectieen"; on the use of Mercator's projec- tion in equatorial triangulation, etc.

Schols however did nf)t confine his interests to ge- ode.sy. In connexion with the theory of j)robability we possess from his hand three communications on the Law of Errors, while of his works on pure mathematics his researches on a semi-convergent seri(>s and on errors in log.arithmic tables may be mentioned. His activity in civil engineering is well illustrated by the prominent part he took in the publication of the text-book on hydraulic architecture — "Waterbouw- kunde", and a detailed investigation into bending moments anrl shearing stresses in railway bridges. Important national services were rendered by Schols by a conscientious preparation and supervision of the new gcoKraphir-al .survey of Holland, which had been undertaken in 1S86 by order of the Government. Schols, whf) had been secretary of the Royal Surveying and Levelling Committee since 1881, threw him- self into the work with characteristic jirdour. He de- vised an el.'ihonite pl.m of proceeding and conducted the operations without allowing the smallest detail to