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stigated the vnolent measures of persecutions against the Jansenists, which he hurled against Le Tellier, was all the more strange coming from his pen, since Saint-Simon himself, on the day following the death of Louis XIV, was one of the most rabid in demanding of the regent severe measures against Le Tellier and other Jesuits. Father Bliard has shown how much care is necessary in judging Saint-Simon's assertions regard- ing the religious questions of his day. The historian Emile Bourgeois, who cannot be charged with prejudice in favour of religion, wrote in his turn, in!!)."): " His- tory has given up the habit, too hastily accjuircd, of pinning her faith to the word of Saint-Simon." And Bourgeois proved how inaccurate were the statements of Saint-Simon by showing what use the latter made in his " Memoirs" of documents of the diplomatist Torcy.

Saint-Simon, Memoires, ed. Boislisle (22 vols., Paris, 1876-1911); Saint-.Simon, £<Ti<.s- inedits.ed. FAUofcRE (6 vols., Paris, 1880-3); Saint-Simon, Lettres et depSches sur I'ambaa- sade d'Espagne, 1721-1722, ed. Drumont (Paris, 1880); Baschet, Le due de Saint-Simon, son cabinet et ses manuscrits (Paris, 1874); Ch^ruel, Saint-Simon considere comme historien de Louis XIV (Paris, 1865); Boissier, Saint-Simon (Paris, 1892); Bliard, Les memoires de Saint-Simon et le Pere Le Tellier (Paris, 1891); Bourgeois, La collaboration de Saint-Simon et de Torcy, etude critique sur les Mimoires de Saint-Simon in Rerue historique. LXXXVII (1905); Pii.astre, Lexique de la langue de Saint- Simon (Paris, 1905).

Georges Goyau.

Saint- Simon and Saint- Simonism. — Claude- Henri DE RouvROY, Comte de Saint-Simon, was born in Paris, 17 Oct., 1760; d. there, 19 May, 1S2.5. He belonged to the family of the author of the "Memoirs". At an early age he showed a certain disdain for tradition; at thirteen he refused to make his first Communion and was puiiishe(l by imprison- ment at Saint Lazare, whence he escui)ed. During the War of Independence he followed his relative, the Marquis de Saint-Simon, to America, took part in the battle of Yorktown, was later mad(i)riboner, and re- covered his liberty only after the Treaty of Versailles. Before leaving America, being as yet only twenty-three years old, he presented to the Viceroy of Mexico the plan of a canal between the two oceans. In 17<SS he drew up important schemes for the economic improve- ment of Spain. During the Revolution he grew rich by speculation, was imprisoned for eleven months, and under the Directory, though leading a prodigal and voluptuous life, continued to dream of a scientific and social reform of humanity, gathering about him such scholars as Monge and Lagrange, and capitalists with whose assistance he proposed to form a gigantic bank for the launching of his philanthropic undertakings. He married Mile, de Champgrand in August, ISO], and divorced her less than a year later in the hope of marrying Mme. de Stael, who had just become a widow, but she refused. In ISO.'), completely ruinetl by his disordered life, he became a copyist at the Mont de Piete, relying for his living on his activity as a writer; failing in this, he led a life of borrowings and make-shifts, and in 1823 attempted to kill himself. Fortunately for him he made the acquaintance of the Jew Olinde Rodrigues who became enamoured of his social ideas and assured him his daily bread till the; end of his life. When dying, Saint-Simon said to Rodrigues: "Remember that to do anything great you must be impassioned". Ardent pa.ssion is what characterized Saint-Simon and explains the peculiar- ities of his life and of his system. This precursor of socialism was not afraid to be a fanatic and even to pass for a fool, while he retained his feudal pride and boasted of having Charlemagne among his ancestors.

The "Lettres d'un habitant de Geneve a ses contemporains" (1803), the "Introduction aux tra- vaux scientifiques du XIX«^ siecle" (1808), and the "Memoire sur la science de I'homme" (1813) show his trust in science and savants for the regener- ation of the world. The second of these works is a hymn to Bonaparte v.-ho created the university

Claude-Henri de Rouvroy, Comte

DE Saint-Simon

From a Contemporary Portrait

and the institute. In 1814, assisted by the future historian, Augustin Thierry, Saint-Simon published a treatise entitled, "De la reorganisation de la societe europeene," in which he dreamed of a po- hticiallj' homogeneous Europe, all of whose nations should possess the same institutions, relying on Eng- land to take the initiative in this federation. Later he turned his attention to political economy. The "Industrie", which he founded, brought out in relief the confli(!t waged throughout Europe between the military and feudal ckLsson the one hand and the working class on the other. The same idea was emphasized in the "Censeur euro- peen", edited by Charles Comte and Dunoyer, but while the "Cen- seur europeen" distrusted schol- ars and learned men, Saint-Si- mon's originality consisted in try- ing, to combine manufacturing in- dustry and what he called "liter- ar>' indu.stry", and create a moral code which all men should study. This authoritative idea displeased Augustin Thierry and he abandoned Saint-Simon, who in 1817 (the date set by Monsieur Per- eire) took as his secretary, Auguste Comte, then 18 years old, the future founder of Positivism. Influ- enced by the writings of Joseph de Maistre, whose " Le Pape" appeared in 1819, and by those of Bonald, Saint-iSimon and Auguste Comt(>, reacting against the individualist ideas of the French Revolution, recognized the necessity in modern society of a power similar to the medieval theocracy. The "positive scientific capacity" was to replace the ancient ecclesiastical power; there should be "no more gov- ernors to command" but "administrators to exercise a directing function"; in a society become an indu.s- trial as.sciatioii; the governmental, or mihtary regime under which the pvopU- was "subject" should give way to the administrative or industrial regimt^ in which the people is to be associated. Saint-Simon drew political conclusions; he found that the working people occupied too small a place in the electoral body and desired that power should be vested in committees compo.sed of the directing elements of the industrial world. Thus he was in no wise a dem- ocrat; he would have only the heads of the industrial hierarchy elected by the people, but would have them recruited by co-option by choosing from the lower ranks of society tho.se who deserve an elevation of their condition. Lib(ral economists long considered that between their liberalism and Saint-Siinon's in- dustriali.sm, which accorded so many jjrerogativcs to an industrial hierarchy, there was little difTcrence; but Saint-Simonism as it was d(!veloped by his tlisci- ples was destined to be a socialist school.

In Saint-Sinion there was always a double ten- dency: his positivist and scientific studies impelled him to found a purely practical and demonstrable moral code, while his sentimental and mystical ten- dencies led him to desire a religion. He believed that Christianity had greatly forwarded morality, but he declared that its reign was at an end. His reli- gious tendency grew by degrees; he declared that the crisis was reached which had been predicted by the