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SACRIFICE

Mythologie der alten Vdlker (3rd ed., Darmstadt. 1877); Werneb, Die Rfligionen u. Kulte des vorchristl. Heidentums (Ratisbon, 1888) ; VoLLERS, Die Weltreligionen in ihremgeschichtl. Zusammen- hang (Jena, 1909) ; de La Sacssaye, Lehrbuch der Religionsgesch. (2 vols., 3rd ed., Tubingen, 1905). Concerning the sacrifices of the ancient Indians see Muller, llihberl Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as illuslraied by the Religion of India (Lon- don, 1878) ; Lindner, Die Dtkshd oder die Weihe fUr das Somaop- fer (1878); Bebgaigse, La religion vedigue (3 vols., Paris, 1S7S- 83); Weber, Zur Kennlnis des retl. OpferrituaU'm Indisrhe Stu- dien, X and XIII; Hillebrandt, Das aUind. Neu- u. Volhnonds- op/cr (1879); lotiii, RUual-Literatur, ted. Opfer u. Zaubcr {1897); MciR, Original Sanscrit Texts, III-V (London, 1890); Hopkins, The Religions of India (London, 1893); Hardy, Die vedisch- brahmanisehe Periode der Religion des alien Indiens (1893); Idem, Indische Religion^gesch. (1898); Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda 0894); Schwab, Das altindische Tieropfer (1896); Mac- DONELL, Vedic Mythology (1897) ; Dahlmann, Der Idealismus der indischen Religionsphilos. im Zeitalter der Opfermystik (Freiburg, 1901); RorssELL, La religion rediqtie (Paris, 1909). Concern- ing Hinduism consult: Monier- Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism (London, 1891); Guru Prosad Sen, An Introduction to the Study of Hinduism (Calcutta, 1893) ; Crooke, Introduction to the Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India (London, 1896); Dubois, Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies (Ox- ford, 1897) ; Slater, The higher Hinduism in relation to Christi- anity (London, 1902). Concerning the Iranians, cf. Hyde, His- toria religionis veterum Persarum (Oxford, 1700) ; Windischmann, Zoroastrische Studien (1863); Spiegel, Eranische Altertums- kunde, II (1878); de Harlez, Les origines du Zoroastrisme (Paris, 1879) ; Haug, Essays on the Sacred Language, Writings and Re- ligion of the Parsis (London, 1884); Dosabhai Franiji Karaka, History of the Parsis, including their Manners, Customs, Religion and Present Position (2 vols., London, 1884); Casartelli, La philos. religeuse du Mazdeisme sous les Sassanides (Paris, 1884) ; Jackson, Zoroaster, the Prophet of Ancient Iran (New York, 1899). Concerning the Greeks, cf. Maury, Hist, des religions de la Grhce antique (3 vols., Paris, 1857-9); Girard, Le sentiment religieux en Grice d'Homere a Eschyle (Paris, 1879); Roscher, Ausfuhr- liches Lexikon der griech. u. rdm. Mythologie (1884); Reisch, Griechische Weihegeschenke (Vienna, 1890) ; Stengel, Die griech. SakralallertHmer (1890) ; Rhodb, Psyche ll891); Gardener and Jevons, Manual of Greek Antiquities (London, 1895) ; Usener, Gdtternamen (1896); Farnell, Cults of the Greek Slates (2 vols., London, 1896); Gruppe, Griech. Mythologie u. Religionsgesch. (Munich, 1897-1906); Rouse, Greek Votive Offerings (Cam- bridge, 1910); Reitzenstein, Die hellenistischen Mysterienre- ligionen (1910); Pieper.s, Qumstiones anathematicce (Leiden, 1903). Concerning the Romans, cf. Bouch^-Leclerc, Manuel des institutions romaines (Paris, 1896); Wissowa, Religion u. Kultua der Rdmer (Munich, 1902); von Pohlmann, Die rdm. Kaiserzeit u. der Untergang der antiken Welt (1910); Gasquet, Essai sur le culte et les mystkres de Mithra (Paris, 1899) ; Cumont, Die Mysterien des Mithra (Leipzig, 1903); Preller, Romische Mythologie (3rd ed., 1881-83); Beurlier, Le culte rendu aux empereurs romains (Paris, 1890); Wendland, Die hellenist.- rdm. Kuliur in ihren Beziehungen zum Judentum u, Christen- tum (1907); Dieterich, Eine Mithrasliiurgie (2nd ed., 1910). Concerning the Chinese, cf. Douglas, Confucianism and Taoism (London, 1892); de Harlez, Les religions de la Chine (Brussels, 1891); Dvorak, Chinas Religionen (2 vols., Leipzig, 1895-1903). Concerning the Egyptians, cf. Le Page Renouf, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as illustrated by the Religion of An- cient Egypt (London, 1879) ; Ebman, Aegypten u, dgyptisches Leben im Altertum (2 vols., 1885-88); Idem, Die dgyptische Religion (2nd ed., Berlin, 1909) ; Brugsch, Religion u. Mythologie der alien Aegypter (1888); Budge, The Mummy (London, 1893); Idem, The Gods of the Egyptians (London, 1904); Idem, History of

Egypt (8 vols., London, 1902 ); Wiedemann, Die Religion der

aUen Aegypter (1890); Flinders Petrie, History of Egypt (Lon- don, 1894); Sayce, Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia (London, 1902); Otto, Priester u. Tempel im hellenisl. Aegypten (2 vols., 1902-08). Concerning the Semites, cf. von Baudissin, Beitrdge zur semitischen Religionsgesch. (Berlin, 1875-78) ; Rob- ebtson Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (London, 1899); Lagbanoe, Sur les religions simitigues (Paris, 1903); ZiMMER, Beitrdge zur Kennlnis der babylon. Religion (1896); Hacpt, Babylonian Elements in the Levitical Ritual (1900); Hil- PBECHT, Die Ausgrabungen im Bel-Tempel zu Nippur (1903); Jebemias, Montheistische StrOmungen innerhalb der babylon- ischen Religion (1904); Winckler, Die Geselze Hammurabis (19(M); Jastrow, Die Religion Babyloniens u. Assyriens (1905); Koldewey, Die Tempel ton Babylon (191 1) ; Movers, Das Opfer- wesen der Karlfiager (1847); Cheyne-Black, Encycl. biblica, s. v. Phttnicia; Scholz, Gdtzen/lienst u. Zauberwesen bei den alien He- braern u. benachbarten Volkern (1877); Schanz, Apologie des Chriitenlums, II (1905). See also the literature to Priesthood.

II. Jewish Sacrifice. — (1) In General. — That many general ideas and riteB, which are found in pagan religions, find their place also in the Jewish sacrificial syst^Tii, should excite as little surpri.sc as the fact that revealed religion in general does not re- ject at all natural religion and ethics, but rather adopts them in a highr-r form. The ethical purity and excellence of the Jewish sacrificial system is at once seen in the circumstance that the; rletestabU; hu- man sacrifices are spumed in the official religion of Jahweh (cf. Deut., xii, 31; xviii, 10;. Abraham's trial

(Gen., xxii, 1 sqq.) ended with the prohibition of the slaying of Isaac, God ordering instead the sacrifice of the ram caught in the briers. Among the Children of Israel human sacrifice meant the profanation of Jah- weh's name (Lev., xx, 1 sqq., etc.). The later prophets also raised their mighty voices against the disgraceful service of Moloch with its sacrifice of children. It is true that the baneful influence of pa- gan environment won the upper hand from the time of King Achaz to that of Josias to such an extent that in the ill-omened Valley of Hinnom near Jerusalem thousands of innocent children were sacrificed to Mo- loch. To this infectious pagan example, not to the spirit of the religion of Jahweh, is also to be referred the sacrifice which Jephte, in consequence of his vow, reluctantly performed by slaying his own daughter (Judges, xi, 1 sqq.). The assertion of many investi- gators (Ghilany, Daumer, Vatke) that even in the legitimate service of Jahweh human sacrifices oc- curred, is historically untenable; for, though the Mosaic Law contained the provision that, not only the firstlings of beasts and fruits, but also the first- bom of men were due to Jahweh, it was expressly pro- vided that these latter should be redeemed, not sacrificed. The ofTering of the blood of an animal in- stead of a human life originated in the profound idea of substitution, and has its justification in the prophet- ical metaphorical references to the unique vicarious sacrifice offered by Christ on Golgotha. The Israel- itic blood vengeance (cherem), in accordance with which impious enemies and things were utterly ex- terminated (cf. Jos., vi, 21 sqq.; 1 Kings, xv, 15, etc.), had absolutely nothing to do with human sacri- fice. The idea of the blood vengeance originated, not as in various pagan religions in the thirst of God for human blood, but in the principle that the powers hostile tc God should be removed by a bloody chas- tisement from the path of the Lord of Ufe and death. The accursed were not sacrificed but removed from the face of the earth. According to Jewish tradition, sacrifice in its bloody and its unbloody form extends back to the beginning of the human race. Tlw first and oldest sacrifice mentioned in the Bible is that of Cain and Abel (Gen. iv, 3 sq.). With sacrifice an altar was associated (Gen., xii, 7 sq.). Even in patri- archal times we meet also the sacrificial meal, espe- cially in connexion with treaties and the conclusion of peace. The conclusion of the covenant at Mount Sinai was also effected under the auspices of a solemn sacrifice and banquet (Ex., xxiv., 5 sqq.). Subse- quently Moses, as the envoy of Jahweh, elaborated the whole sacrificial system, and in the Pentateuch fixed with most scrupulous exactness the various kinds of sacrifice and their ritual. Like the whole Mosaic cult, the sacrificial system is governed by the one central idea, peculiar to the religion of Jahweh: "I3e holy because I am holy" (Lev., xi, 44).

(2) Material of the Sacrifices. — The general name for Jewish sacrifice was originally jninchah (,""2*;, dmcpopd, donum), afterwards the special technical tcTin for the unbloody food-offering. To the latter was opposed the bloody sacrifice (n2T, Ov<nA,, viclima). According to the method of offering, sacrific(« were known as korban (pip, bringing near) or 'olah (riVi'', ascending), the latter term being used especially of the holocaust (q. v.). The material of the bloody sacrifice must be taken from the personal po.ssessions of the offerer, and must belong to the category of clean animals. Thus, on the one hand, only domestic animals (oxen, sheep, goats) from the stock of the sacrificer were allowed (Lev., xxii, 19 sqq.), and h(^nco neith(!r fi.sh nor wild animals; on the other hand, all unclean animals fe. g. dogs, pigs, asses, camels) were excluded, even though th(\y wen; domestic animals. Doves wen; about t Ik- only sort of birds that could be used. The substitution of turtle dov(« or young pigeons for the larger animals was allowed to the poor