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frequently are in conflict with their bishops because the former use all the ancient rites. Add to this the assertion made by Mortimer (op. cit., I, 122) that all the sacraments cause grace ex opere operato, and we see that "advanced" Anglicans are returning to the doctrine and the practices of the Old Church. Whether and in how far their position can be reconciled with the twenty-fifth article, is a question which they must settle. Assuredly their wanderings and gropings after the truth prove the necessity of having on earth an infallible interpreter of God's word.

(3) Division and Comparison of the Sacraments. — (a) All sacraments were instituted for the spiritual good of the recipients; but five, viz. baptism, confirma- tion, penance, the Eucharist, and extreme unction, primarily benefit the individual in his private char- acter, whilst the other two, orders and matrimony, Primarily affect man as a social being, and sanctify im in the fulfillment of his duties toward the Church and society. By baptism we are born again, confirma- tion makes us strong, perfect Christians and soldiers. The Eucharist furni.shes our daily spiritual food. Penance heals the soul wounded by sin. Extreme unction removes the last remnant of human frailty, and prepares the soul for eternal life, orders supplies ministers to the Church of God. Matrimony gives the graces necessary for those who are to rear children in the love and fear of God, members of the Church militant, future citizens of heaven. This is St. Thomas's explanation of the fitness of the number seven (III, Q. Iv, a. 1). He gives other explanations offered by the Schoolmen (see Pourrat, op. cit., pp. 177, sqq.) but does not bind himself to any of them. In fact the only really sufficient reason for the existence of seven sacraments, and no more, is the will of Christ : there are seven because He in.stituted seven. The explanation and adaptions of theologians serve only to excite our admiration and gratitude, by showing how wisely and beneficiently God has provided for our spiritual needs in these seven efficacious sings of grace.

(b) Baptism and penance are called "sacraments of the dead", because they give life, through sancti- fying grace then called "first grace", to those who are spiritually dead by reason of original or actual sin. The other five are "sacraments of the living", be- cause their reception presupposes, at least ordinarily, that the recipient is in the state of grace, and they give "second grace", i. e. increase of sanctifying grace (q. v.). Nevertheless, since the sacraments always give some grace when there is no obstacle in the recipi- ent, it may happen in cases explained by theologians that "second grace" is conferred by a sacrament of the dead, e. g. when one who has only venial sins to confess receives absolution and that "first grace" is conferred by a sacrament of the living (see St. Thomas, in, Q. Ixxii, a. 7 ad 2 um; m, Q. bcxix, a. 3). Con- cerning extreme unction St. James exphcitly states that through it the recipient may be freed from his sins: "If he be in sins, they shall be forgiven him" (James, v. 15).

(c) Comparison in dignity and necessity. — The Council of Trent declared that the sacraments are not all equal in dignity; also that none are superfluous, although all are not necessary for each individual (Ses.s. VII, can. 3, 4). The Eucharist is the first in dignity, because it contains Christ in person, whilst in the other sacraments grace is conferred by an in- strumental virtue derived from Christ (St. Thomas, III, Q. Ivi, a. 3). To this reason St. Thomas adds another, viz., that the Eucharist is as the end to which the other sacraments tend, a centre around which they revolve (loc. cit.). Baptism is always first in neces- sity; Holy orders comes next after the Eucharist in the order of dignity, confirmation being between these two. Penance and extreme unction could not have a first place because they presuppose defects (sins).

Of the two penance is the first in necessity: extreme unction completes the work of penance and prepares souls for heaven. Matrimony has not such an im- portant social work as orders (loc. cit., ad 1 um). if we consider necessity alone — the Eucharist being left out as our daily bread and God's greatest gift — three are simply and strictly necessary, baptism for all, penance for those who fall into mortal sin after re- ceiving baptism, orders for the Church. The others are not so strictly necessary. Confirmation completes the work of baptism; extreme unction completes the work of penance; matrimony sanctifies the procrea- tion and education of children, which is not so im- portant nor so necessary as the sanctification of minis- ters of the Church (St. Thomas, loc. cit., a, 4).

(d) Episcopahans and Anglicans distinguish two great sacraments and five lesser sacraments because the latter "have not any visible sign or ceremony ordained by God" (art. XXV). Then they should be classed among the sacramentals since God alone can be the author of a sacrament (see above III). On this point the language of the twenty-fifth article ("commonly called sacraments") is more logical and straightforward than the terminology of recent An- glican writers. The Anglican Catechism calls bap- tism and Eucharist sacraments "generally (i. e. uni- versally) necessary for salvation". Mortimer justly remarks that this ex^pression is not "entirely ac- curate", because the Eucharist is not generally neces- sary to salvation in the same sense as Baptism (op. cit., I, 127). The other five he adds are placed in a lower class because, "they are not necessary to salva- tion in the same sense as the two other sacraments, since they are not necessary for everyone" (loc. cit., 128). Verily this is interpretation extraordinary; yet we should be grateful since it is more respectful than saying that those five are "such as have grown partly of the corrupt following of the Apostles, partly are states of life allowed in the Scriptures" (art. XXV). Confusion and uncertainty will be avoided by accept- ing the declaration of the Council of Trent (above.)

V. Effects of the Sacraments. — (I) Catholic Doctfine. — (a) The principle effect of the sacrament is a two-fold grace: (1) the grace of the sacrament which is "first grace", produced by the sacraments of the dead, or "second grace ", produced by the sacra- ments of the living (supra, IV, 3, b) : (2) The sacra- mental grace, i. e., the special grace needed to attain the end of each sacrament. Most probably it is not a new habitual gift, but a special vigour or efl^cacy in the sanctifying grace conferred, including on the part of God, a promise, and on the part of man a per- manent right to the assistance needed in order to act in accordance with the obligations incurred, e. g., to live as a good Christian, a good priest, a good husband or wife (cf. Pourrat, op. cit., 199; St. Thomas, III, Q. Ixii, a. 2). (b) Three sacraments, baptism, confir- mation, and orders, besides grace, produce in the soul a character, i. e. an indelible spiritual mark by which some are consecrated as servants of God, some as soldiers, some as ministers. Since it is an indelible mark, the sacraments which impress a character can not be received more than once (Cone. Trid., sess. VII, can. 9; see Charactek).

(2) How the Sacraments cause Grace. — Theological controversies. Few questions have been so hotly controverted as this one relative to the manner in which the sacraments cause grace (St. Thomas, IV, Sent., d. 1, Q. 4, a 1.). (a) All admit that the sacra- ments of the New Law cause grace ex opere operato, not ex opere operantis {supra, II, 2, 3). (b) All admit that God alone can be the principal cause of grace (supra 3, I), (c) All admit that Christ as man, had a special pwwer over the sacraments (supra, 3, 2). (d) All admit that the sacraments are, in some sense, the instrumental causes either of grace itself or of something else which will be a " title exigent of grace"