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proclaimed their determination to resist the Catholic claims even by force. The Catholics were equally defiant, and all the efforts of O'Connell on the one side and of the Lord Lieutenant, the Marquess of Anglesey, on the other, were scarcely sufficient to prevent Catholics and Orangemen from coming to blows. Anglesey privately warned the prime minis- ter that even the soldiers were not to be relied on, and were cheering for O'Connell; and Dr. Curtis, an old friend of the Duke of Wellington, implored of him to yield. His reply was that if the Catholics ceased to agitate, and if a period of quiet supervened, something might be done; and when Anglesey ad- vised the Catholics to continue their agitation he was instantly removed from office. Excitement grew, party passions were further inflamed, men's minds were constantly agitated by hopes and fears; and as the gloomy days of winter passed and a new year was ushered in, the conviction was general that peace could not be maintained, and that there must be concession or civil war.

At last WeUington and Peel surrendered. The former worked upon the fears of the king and com- pelled him to yield; the latter managed the House of Commons with consummate ability, and in March a CathoUc Relief Bill was introduced, and in the following month passed into law. Under its pro- visions Catholics were admitted to Parhament and to the corporations; but they were still excluded from some of the higher offices, civil and military, such as those of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Commander- in-chief of the Army, and Lord Chancellor both in England and Ireland.; priests were forbidden to wear vestments outside their churches, and bishops to assume the titles of their dioceses; Jesuits were to leave the kingdom, and other religious orders were to he rendered incapable of receiving charitable be- quests. Further, the franchise being raised to ten pounds, the forty-shilling freeholders were dis- franchised; and the Act not being retrospective, O'Connell on coming to take his seat was tendered the old oath, which he refused and then had to seek re-election for Clare. These concessions to bigotry — they were said to be made especially to placate the king— helped to spoil the healing effect of the measure. The provisions regarding priests and bishops were indeed of little value, and were either evaded or de- spised; but th(! disfranchisement of the forty-shilling freeholders was a grievous wrong; and the denial of his seat to O'Connell was a personal insult, and was felt to be an insult to all Ireland.

Journals uf the Irish /louse of Commons; Irish Parliamentary Debates {1781-07): Annual Register (1800-29); Lecky, History of Ireland in the Eidhleenth Century (London, 1897); Mitchei,. History of Ireland (Glasgow, 1869) ; D'Alton, History of Ireland (London, 1910); Plowden, History of Ireland, 1800-1810 (Dub- lin, 1811); Castlereagh Correspondence (London, 1848); Cornwallis Corresporidence (London, 1859); Ingram, History of the Legislative Union (London, 1887); MacNeill, How the Union was carried (London, 1887); Grattan's Memoirs (London. 18.39); Grattan's Speeches (liOndon, 1822); Stanhope, Life of Pitt (London, 1861); Plunkel's Speeches (Dublin); Wyse, History of the Catholic Association (London, 1829) ; Walpolb, History of England (Lon- don, 1879); Greville's Memoirs (London, 1904); Fitzpatrick, Correspondence of O'Connell (London, 1888); O'Connell' s Speeches, ed.O'CoNNELL(Dublin);SHEiL, Speeches (Dublin); MacDonagh, Life of O'Connell (London, 1903); Dunlop, Daniel O'Connell (London and New York, 1900) ; Shaw Lefevre, Peel and O'Connell (London, 1887); Lecky, Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland (London, 1903); Colchester's Diary (London, 1861); Pellew, Life of Lord Sidmouth (London, 1847) ; Canning's Con espondence, ed. Stapleton (London, 1887) ; Creevey Papers (London, 1903); Peel's Memoirs (London, 1856).

E. A. D'Alton.

Roman Colleges. — This article treats of the vari- ous coll('y:cs in Iloiiie which have been founded under ecclesiastical auspices and are under ecclesiastical di- rection, with the exception of those that are treated separately under their respective titles throughout The Catholic Encyclopedia. The word "college" is used here to designate institutions established and maintained in Rome for the education of ecclesias-

tics; it is equivalent to "seminary". While the word seminario is applied occasionally, e. g. the Seminario Romano (S. ApoUinare), the majority of these institutions, and those especially which have a national character, are known as "colleges". The training of priests in general is described in the article Seminary; here it suffices to note that the Roman colleges, in addition to the obvious advan- tages for study which Rome offers, also serve in a certain measure to keep up in the various coun- tries of the world that spirit of loyal attachment to the Holy See which is the basis of unity. With this end in view the popes have encouraged the founding of colleges in which young men of the same nationality might reside and at the same time profit by the opportunities which the city affords. So too it is significant that within the last half century several colleges have developed as offshoots of the Propaganda (Urban College) in which the students from various countries were received until each nationality became numerous enough to form the nucleus of a distinct institution. The colleges thus established are halls of residence in which the students follow the usual seminary exercises of piety, study in private, and review the subjects treated in class. In some colleges there are special courses of instruction (languages, music, archajology etc.), but the regular courses in philosophy and theology are given in a few large central institutions, such as the Propaganda, the Gregorian University, the Roman Seminary, and the Minerva, i. e. the school of the Dominicans. The Roman colleges are thus grouped in several clusters, each of which includes a centre for purposes of instruc- tion and a number of affiliated institutions. Each college has at its head a rector designated by the epis- copate of the country to which the college belongs and apijointed by the pope. He is assisted by a vice- rector and a spiritual director. Discipline is main- tained by means of the camerala system in which the students are divided into groups each in charge of a prefect who is responsible for the observance of rule. Each camerata occupies its own section of the college building, has its own quarters for recreation, and goes its own way about the city on the daily walk pres- cribed by the regulations. Meals and chapel exer- cises are in common for all students of the college. While indoors, the student wears the cassock with a broad cincture; outside the college, the low-crowned three-cornered clerical hat and a cloak or soprana are added.

The scholastic year begins in the first week of November and ends about the middle of July. In most of the courses the lecture system is followed and at stated times formal disputations are held in accor- dance with scholastic methods. The course of studies, whether leading to a degree or not, is prescribed and it extends, generally speaking, through six years, two of which are devoted to philo.sophy and four to theology. To philosophy in the stricter sense are added courses in mathematics, languages, and natural sciences. Theology includes, besides dogmatic and moral theology, courses in liturgy, archaeology, Church history, canon law and Scripture. An oral examination is held in the middle of the year and a written examination (concursus) at the close. The usual degrees (baccalaureate, licentiate, and doctor- ate) are conferred in philosophy, theology, and canon law; since 1909 degrees in Sacred Scripture are con- ferred upon students who fulfil the requirements of the Biblical Institute. Each college spends the summer vacation at its mllegiatura or country house located outside the city and generally in or near one of the numerous towns on the slopes of the neighbouring hills. Student life in the "villa" is quite similar to the routine of the academic year in regard to discipline and religious exercises; but a larger allowance is made for recreation and for occasional trips through the