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 REFORMATION

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REFORMATION

riots occurred during which images of Christ and the saints were destroyed. The parlements in most cases took energetic measui'es against the innovators, although in certain quarters the latter found pro- tectors — especially Margaret of Valois, sister of King Francis I and wife of Henry d'Albret, King of Navarre. The leaders of the Reformation in Germany sought to win over King Francis I, for political reasons an ally of the Protestant German princes; the king, how- ever, remained true to the Church, and suppressed the reform movements throughout his land. In the south-eastern districts, especially in Provence and Dauphine, the supporters of the new doctrines in- creased through the efforts of Reformers from Switzerland and Strasbui'g, until finally the desecra- tion and plundering of churches compelled the king to take energetic steps against them. After Calvinism had established itself in Geneva, its influence grew rapidly in French reform circles. Calvin appeared at Paris as defender of the new religious movement in 1533, dedicated to the French king in 1.536 his " Institutioncs Christianae Religionis", and went to Geneva in the same year. E.xpelled from Geneva, he returned in 1541, and began there the final estab- lishment of his religious organization. Geneva, with its academy inaugurated by Calvin, was a leading centre of the Reformation and affected principally France. Pierre le Clerc established the first Calvin- istic community at Paris; other communities were established at Lyons, Orleans, Angers, and Rouen, repressive measures proving of little avail. Bishop Jacques Spifamius of Nevers lapsed into Calvinism, and in 15.59 Paris witnessed the assembly of a general synod of French Reformers, which adopted a Calvin- istic creed and introduced the Swiss presbyteral con- stitution for the Reformed communities. Owing to the support of the Waldensians, to the dissemination of reform literature from Geneva, Basle, and Stras- burg, and to the steady influx of preachers from these cities, the adherents of the Reformation increased in France. On the death of King Henry II (1559) the Calvinist Huguenots wished to take advantage of the weakness of the Government to increase their power. The queen-dowager, Catherine de' Medici, was an ambitious intriguer, and pursued a time-serving policy. Political aspirations soon became entangled with the religious movement, which thereby assumed wider proportions and a greater importance. From opposition to the ruling line and to the powerful and zealously Catholic dukes of Guise, the princes of the Bourbon line became the protectors of the Calvinists; these were Antoine de Vendome, King of Navarre, and his brothers, especially Louis de Cond6. They were joined by the Constable de Montmorency, Admiral Coligny and his brother d'Andelot, and Cardinal Odet de Chatillon, Bishop of Beauvais.

In spite of anti-heretical laws, Calvinism was making steady progress in the South of France, when on 17 January, 1562, the queen-dowager, regent for the young Charles IX, issued an edict of toleration, allowing the Huguenots the free practice of their reli- gion outside the towns and without weapons, but forbidding all interference with and acts of violence against Catholic institutions, and ordering the restitu- tion of all churches and all ecclesiastical property taken from the Catholics. Rendered thereby only more audacious, the Calvinists committed, especially in the South, revolting acts of violence against the Catholics, putting to death Catholic priests even in the suburbs of Paris. The occurrence at Vassy in Champagne on 1 March, 1562, where the retinue of the Duke of Guise came into conflict with the Hugue- nots, inaugurated the first religious and ci\'il war in France. Although this ended with the defeat of the Huguenots, it occasionefl great losses to the Catholics of France. Relics of saints were burnt and scattered, magnificent churches reduced to ashes, and numerous

priests murdered. The edict of Amboise granted new favours to the Calvinistic nobles, although the earlier edict of tolerance was withdrawn. Five other civil wars followed, during which occurred the massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day (24 August, 1572). It was not until the Une of Valois had be- come extinct with Henry III (1589), and Henry of Navarre (who embraced Catholicism in 1593) of the Bourbon line had ascended the throne, that the reli- gious wars were brought to an end by the Edict of Nantes (13 April, 1598); this granted the Calvinists not only full religious freedom and admission to all public offices, but even a privileged position in the State. Ever-increasing difficulties of a pohtical nature arose, and Cardinal Richelieu aimed at ending the influential position of the Huguenots. The capture of their chief fortress. La Rochelle (28 October, 1628), finally broke the power of the French Calvinists as a political entity. Later, many of their number re- turned to Catholicism, although there still remained numerous adherents of Calvinism in France.

D. Italy and Spain. — While in both these lands there appeared isolated supporters of the Reforma- tion, no strong or extensive organization arose. Here and there in Italy influential individuals (e. g. Vittoria Colonna and her circle) favoured the reform movement, but they desired such to occur within, not as a rebellion against the Church. A few Italians embraced Lutheranism or Calvinism, e. g. John Valdez, secretary of the Viceroy of Naples. In the cities of Turin, Pavia, Venice, Ferrara (where Duchess Renata favoured the Reformation), and Florence might be found adherents of the German and Swiss Reformers, although not so exlreme as their proto- types. The more prominent had to leave the country — thus Pietro Paolo Vergerio, who fled to Switzerland and thence to Wittenberg; Bernardino Ochino, who fled to Geneva and was later professor at Oxford; Petrus Martyr Vermigli, who fled to Zurich, and was subsequently active at Oxford, Strasburg, and again at Zurich. By the vigorous inauguration of true ecclesiastical reform in the spirit of the Council of Trent, through the activity of numerous saintly men (such as Sts. Charles Borromeo and Philip Neri), through the vigilance of the bishops and the diligence of the Inquisition, the Reformation was excluded from Italy. In some circles rationalistic and anti-trinita- rian tendencies showed themselves, and Italy was the birthplace of the two heresiarchs, Laelius Socinus and his nephew Faustus Socinus, the founders of Socinian- ism (q. v.).

The course of events was the same in Spain as in Italy. Despite some attempts to disseminate anti- ecclesiastical writings in the country, the Reforma- tion won no success, thanks to the zeal displayed by the ecclesiastical and public authorities in counteract- ing its efforts. The few Spaniards who accepted the new doctrines were unable to develop any reforming activity at home, and lived abroad — e. g. Francisco EnzLnas (Dryander), who made a translation of the Bible for Spaniards, Juan Diaz, Gonsalvo Montano, Miguel Servede (Servetus), who was condemned by Calvin at Geneva for his doctrine against the Trinity and burnt at the stake.

E. Hungary and Transylvania. — The Reformation was spread in Hungary by Hungarians who had studied at Wittenberg and had there embraced Lutheranism. In 1525 stringent laws were passed against the adherents of the heretical doctrines, but their numbers continued to increase, especially among the nobility, who wished to confiscate the ecclesiastical property, and in the free cities of the kingdom. Turkish victories and conquest and the war between Ferdinand of Austria and John Zapolya favoured the reformers. In addition to the Lutherans there were soon followers of Zwingli and Calvin in the country. Five Lutheran towns in Upper Hun-