Page:Catholic Encyclopedia, volume 12.djvu/782

 REDWOOD

700

REFORMATION

More recent literature: Grandsire, Bricfe aus Paraguaji, mitg. von Alex, ton Humboldt in Herlha, vol. II (Berlin, 1825); Demersav, Hist. phys. econom. et pol. du Paraguay et des Etab- lissemenls des JSsuites, vol. II (Paris, 1860-64); du Gratt, La Ripubl. du Parag. (Brussels, 1862); Kobler, Der christl. Communismus in d. Red. ». Par. (Wilrzburg, 1856); de Moubsy, Memoire hist, sur la decadence et la ruine des Miss, de Jisuites (Paris, 1865); Genelin, Die Red. nan Paraguay (Vienna, 1895); Ddhr, Jesuitenfabeln (4th ed., Freiburg, 1904); Idem, Unge- druckte Briefe zur Gesch. des Jesuitenkrieges in Parag. in Zeitschr. Sur Kath. Theol. (Innsbruck), XX, 689 sq.; Hafkemeter. Die Gesch. des Jesuitenkrieges Parag., ibid., XXXII, 672 sq.; Weld, The Suppression of the Society of Jesus in the Porlug. Dominions (London, 1877); Carayon, Docum. ined. P. (Poitiers, 1867); Die ncucsten Jesuitenfcindl. Schriften iibcr Parag.; GoTHAiN, Der christl. sociale Stoat der Jesuiten in Parag. (Leipzig, 1883). answered in Stimmen aus Maria Laach, XXV, 439 sq. ; Pfoten- HAtjER, Die Miss. d. Jesuiten in Parag. (3 vols., Giitersloh, 1891-93), (Brack EBUSCH, a Protestant, calls this work "a product of denominational zealotism", without any historical value, in Pelermann'sche Mitteil.. XLI, L. B., ISl, n. 843); cf. Pastor, Pfotenhauer und die "Erziehungsgrundsatze der Jesuiten"; Kath. Flugschriften (Berlin, Germatua, 1896), nos. 104, 105.

A. HUONDER

Redwood, Francis. See Wellington, Arch- diocese OF.

Referendarii. — The papal office of the referendarii (from refero, to inform) existed at the Byzantine Court. They were officials who reported to the em- peror on the memorials of petitioners, and conveyed to the judges the orders of the emperor in connexion with such memorials. During the Merovingian period of the Prankish Empire, the official later known aa chancellor {canccllarius) is called "referendarius". In the Papal Curia the office of "referendarii Apos- tolic!" originated in the Middle Ages; their duty was to receive all petitions directed to the Holy See, to report on them to the pope, and to tender him advice. The treatment and decision varied according to the nature of the question. If a favour was concerned, it might be either granted or refused; if some dispute, the pope decided whether it should be referred to a judge. The referendarii were entrusted with all arrangements for these papal decisions, which they had to prepare for the pope's signature (signatura). From these referendarii developed the court of the Signatura (Collegium referendariorum Signaturae votantium), concerning which there are various papal constitutions. Innocent VIII (1484-92) introduced a distinction between the referendarii on questions of favours and of justice, whence developed the "Sig- natura gratis" and the "Signatura justitis", each competent to give final decision within its sphere. In the court of the "Signatura justitiae" developed a dis- tinction between the prelates entitled to vote {praelati volanles) and those whose duties were confined to re- porting on individual cases (prcelali referendarii). The whole body gradually lost all practical importance, especially after the loss of the papal States, and was entirely abolished at the reorganization of the Curia by Pius X.

Banqen, Dierdm. Kurie (Munster, 1854), 370 sqq. (.Signatura fustitice), 391 aqq. (Sign, gaatim); Thomassinus, Vetus et nova ecclesim disciplina. III (Lyons, 1705), 546 sqq.; Die kathol. Kirche unserer Zeit, I (Berlin, 1899). 464-0.

J. P. KlRSCH.

Reformation, The, the usual term for the re- ligious movement which made its appearance in Western Europe in the sixteenth century, and which, while ostensibly aiming at an internal renewal of the Church, really led to a great revolt against it, and an abandonment of the principal Christian beliefs. We shall review the general characteristics of this movement from the following standpoints: I. Causes of the Reformation; II. Original Ideas and Purposes of the Reformers; III. Methods of Spreading the Reformation; IV. Spread of the Ref- ormation in the Various Countries; V. Different Forms of the Reformation; VI. Results and Con- sequences of the Reformation.

I. Causes of thk Rkkormation. — The causes

of the great religious revolt of the sixteenth century must be sought as far back as the fourteenth. The doctrine of the Church, it is true, had remained pure; saintly lives were yet frequent in all parts of Europe, and the numerous beneficent medieval institutions of the Church continued their course uninterruptedly. Whatever unhappy conditions existed were largely due to civil and profane influences or to the exercise of authority by ecclesiastics in civil spheres; they did not obtain everj-where with equal intensity, nor did they always occur simultaneously in the same coun- try. Ecclesiastical and religious life exhibited in many places vigour and variety; works of education and charity abounded; religious art in all its forme had a living force; domestic missionaries were many and influential; pious and edifying literature was common and appreciated. Gradually, however, and largely owing to the variously hostile spirit of the civil powers, fostered and heightened by several elements of the new order, there grew up in many parts of Europe political and social conditions which hampered the free reformatory activities of the Church, and favoured the bold, and unscrupulous, who seized a unique opportunity to let loose all the forces of heresy and schism so long held in check by the harmonious action of the ecclesiastical and civil authorities.

A. Since the Barbarian invasions the Church had effected a complete transformation and revival of the races of Western Europe, and a glorious develop- ment of religious and intellectual life. The papacy had become the powerful centre of the family of Christian nations, and as such had for centuries, in union with the episcopate and the clergy, displayed a most beneficent activity. With the ecclesiastical organization fully developed, it came to pass that the activities of the governing ecclesiastical bodies were no longer confined to the ecclesiastical domain, but affected almost every sphere of popular life. Gradually a regrettable worldlincss manifested itself in many high ecclesiastics. Their chief object, viz. to guide man to his eternal goal, claimed too seldom their attention, and worldly activities became in too many cases the chief interest. Political power, material possessions, privileged position in public life, the defence of ancient historical rights, earthly interests of various kinds were only too often the chief aim of many of the higher clergy. Pastoral solicitude, the specifically religious and ecclesiastical aim, fell largely into the background, notwithstand- ing various spirited and successful attempts to rectify the existing evils.

B. Closely connected with the above were various abuses in the lives of the clergy and the people. In the Papal Curia political interests and a worldly life were often prominent. Many bishops and abbots (especially in countries where they were also terri- torial princes) bore themselves as secular rulers rather than as servants of the Church. Many mem- bers of cathedral chapters and other beneficed ec- clesiastics were chiefly concerned with their income and how to increase it, especially by uniting several prebends (even episcopal sees) in the hands of one person, who thus enjoyed a larger income and greater power. Luxury prevailed widely among the higher clergy, while the lower clergy were often oppressed. The scientific and ascetic training of the clergy also left much to be desired, the moral standard of many being very low, and the practice of celibacy not everywhere observed. Not less serious was the con- dition of many monasteries of men, and even of women (which were frequently homes for the un- married daughters of the nobility). The former prestige of the clergy had thus suffered greatly, and its members were in many places regarded with scorn, .^s to the Christian people itself, in numer- ous districts ignorance, superstition, religious iudif-