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 PUNCTATION

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PUNISHMENT

that express feeling and motion, is the pulpit of the Church of San Andrea at Pistoia, which was completed by Niccola's son Giovanni in 1301.

The first examples of Renaissance pulpits are those of Donatcllo (fifteenth century). For funeral ora- tions in the churchyard, for the preaching of pil- grimages, or for the exhibition of relics, pulpits were often built outside of the churches, as that of the cathedral at Prato. Donatello inserted liere into the original round form of the pulpit seven white marble panels, on which in his customary manner he represented in bas-relief little cherubs in an anima- ted dance; the ornamentation of the bronze capital below the pulpit, which rests on a single support, is also purely decorative in character. At an earlier era the platform of the pulpit was supported by an under- structure or by a number of columns, and during the Renaissance pulpits projected from a pillar or wall, like balconies. Both bronze pulpits in San Lorenzo at Florence rest on four Ionic columns, and are dec-

PULPIT IN THE CaTH

orated with representations of the Passion, over which there is a frieze of cherubs borrowed from the art of antiquity. In the beautiful marble pulpit of Santa Croce at Florence, the panels of the breast- work are decorated with scenes from the life of St. Francis. The details of the work are executed with fine artistic feeling and proportion; the decorative statuettes and other accessories are dignified and graceful. The magnificent pulpit made by Master Pilgram for the Cathedral of St. Stephen at Vienna (sixteenth century) is decorated with busts of the Fathers of the Church and figures of other saints. The ornate decoration of the pulpit of the collegiate church at AschatTenburg depicts the Church Fathers around the supporting pillar, busts of the same in the upper frieze, scenes from the Bible separated by spirited figures of the EvangeUsts, and angels in the place of consoles. In the Cathedral at Trier the ascent to the pulpit is covered by a magnificently ornamented archway v^ith a high decoration at the top. On the string-piece of the steps are carved the Sermon on the Mount and the Last Judgment, and on the panels of the parapet the works of mercy are depicted. The pulpit of Freiberg in Saxony is fantastically developed from the root of a plant and on it in a naturalistic manner the figures of men and animals are formed.

The most striking pulpits of the Baroque period are those of Belgium. The base, stairway, and sound- ing-board were artistically or fantastically covered according to the taste of the time with luxurious and ornate carving. In Ste Gudule's at Brussels the banishment of Adam and Eve from Paradise is carved underneath the pulpit, while, in contrast, the Mother of God is represented above the .sounding- board as a mighty female warrior and slayer of the

dragon. Underneath the pulpit of the cathedral of Mechlin there is a representation of the Crucifixion on Calvary with the people at Christ's feet, while below the rock Saul falls from his horse, overcome by the truth; above at the side are carvings of Adam and Eve with the Serpent. All these are rich in sug- gestions for the sermon. At the base of the pulpit of the Church of St. Andrew at Antwerp there is a splen- did carving of Christ and the Apostles Peter and John in a little boat. Over the sounding-board angels hold on high the St. Andrew's cross, and beneath the dove, representing the Holy Spirit, sends rays in all directions. The whole structure of a pulpit in Cracow represents a ship, with sails, mast, and rig- ging, poised over sea monsters. The ornamentation of the ])ulpit should never be excessive, but subordi- nate to that of the high altar, whose view it should not obstruct. The latter difficulty is often removed by setting the pulpit slightly towards the side aisle, where- by a troublesome echo from the transept is avoided. Near which pillar of the nave the pulpit should be placed depends upon the acoustics of the church. The sounding-board should, above all, make the voice of the preacher perfectly distinct; by giving it the form of a shell the waves of sound are often sent in a definite direction. In order that the speaker may be readily understood, the pulpit should not stand too high. Its ornamentation should be ap- propriate; representations of the Evangelists or Church Fathers, scenes from the Bible, as the Sermon on the Mount, the dove as a symbol of the Holy Ghost on the under side of the sounding-board, and perhaps an angel over it. A simple pillar skil- fully developed into the platform of the pulpit is satisfactory, when its decoration and that of the stairway and string-piece is subordinate to that of the central main part. The lack of a vertical support makes an unpleasant impression; a reading-desk or crucifix is apt to produce an overloaded effect. A well-arranged pulpit-cloth varied in colour to suit the various feasts and periods of the year would be proper.

Otte, Kunstarchdologie (Leipzig, 1883-4) ; Lubke, Plastik (Leipzig, 1871); Martigny, Diciionnaire des antiquites chH- tiennes (Paris, 1877), 159-G2, a. v. Chaire; Allard, Rome souteT' raine (Paris, 1874), 536-.50; see also bibliography under Ambo. The pulpits for several hundred years past are described in the larger histories of art.

G. GlETMANN.

Punctation of Ems. See Ems, Congress of.

Punishment, Capital, the infliction by due legal profess of the penalty of death as a punishment for crime. The Latins use the word capitalis (from caput, head) to describe that which related to life, that by which life is endangered. They used the neuter form of this adjective, i. e., capitale substantively to de- nominate death, actual or civil, and banishment im- posed by public authority in consequence of crime. The idea of capital punishment is of great antiquity anfl formed a part of the primal concepts of the human race. When Cain committed fratricide (Gen., iv), and was rebuke(l therefor by God, he uttered the lament that his life would be in danger by reason of the hos- tility of others. A mark was set upon him by the Lord which was a guarantee of his personal safety. The first Divine pronouncement which seems to sanction the death penalty is found in Gen., ix, 6: " Whosoever shall shed man's blood, his blood shall be shed; for man was made to the image of God." When the ancient Israelites had departed from Egypt and were sojourning in the Sinaitic Peninsula, they received from the Lord a code of legislation wherein the death penalty was prescribed for many offences. Thus, in Ex., xxi, that penalty is prescribed for murder, for a wilful assault upon the father or mother of an offender, for cursing a man's father or mother, .and for man- stealing. Down to their latest days the Kingdoms of