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fine ourselves to brief notices of the most important historical phenomena.

(1) As a natural characteristic of man, human sjTnpathy was active even among the pagans, who, however, recognized no moral obhgation to render as- sistance, since the knowledge of a common origin and destiny and of the equality of men before God was wanting. Isolated suggestions of the Christian doctrine of neighbourly charity are found in the writ- ings of Cicero, Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aure- lius, but these writers were powerless to convert wide circles to more humane sentiments. Consequently, a public and general care of the poor existed nowhere in antiquity, but only isolated suggestions thereof. In Athens Pisistratus made pro\-ision for needj' w-ar- invalids and citizens, and the application of this provision was later extended to all residents whom infirmity rendered unable to work. Special officials, the sitarchs, were also appointed to prevent a short- age of corn. Similar institutions existed in other Greek towns. In Rome the poor regulations from the time of JuUus Caesar, and the donations of corn especially after the time of Caesar and Augustus must be regarded as simph' political measures designed to soothe the Roman proletariat clamouring for bread and games. The same may be said of the children's aUmentaturia founded by Xerva and Hadrian and perfected by Trajan, of the institutions for providing for orphans in numerous towns in Italy, supported from the imperial purse, and of the later private foundations of the same kind under State supervision to be found in Italy and in the different provinces. Under the Empire the colleges of artisans were bound to provide for their impoverished colleagues. The efforts of Juhan the Apostate to plant Christian poor-relief on pagan soil with the assistance of the pagan high-priest, Arsatinus, met with scant success.

(2) The JNIosaic Law established a preventive poor-relief, contained numerous provisions in favour of needy Jews, and expressly commands the giving of alms (Deut., xv, 11). These precepts of the Law were strongly inculcated bj- the prophets. The Divine command of charity towards one's neighbour is clearly expressed in the Law (Lev., xix, IS), but the Jews regarded as their neighbour only the mern- bers of their race and strangers li^^ng in their terri- tories. The Pharisees further intensified this narrow interpretation into scorn for heathens and hatred for per-sonal enemies (Matt., v, 37; Luke, x, 33). Pleas- ures of preventive poor-relief were the decisions of the Law concerning the division of the land among the tribes and families, the inalienableness of landed property, the Sabbath and Jubilee year, usury, the gathering of grapes and com. the third tithe, etc.

(3) Jesus Christ compared love of neighbour with the love of God; proclaimed as its prototype the love of the Heavenly Father and His own reclaiming love for all mankind; and taught the duties of the prop- ertied classes towards the poor. His own life of poverty and want and the principle, "As long as you did it to one of these my least brethren, you did it to me", conceded to works of mercy a claim to eternal reward, and to the needy of every description the hope of kindly relief. In the doctrine and example of Jesus Clirist lie the germs of all the charitable activity of the Church, which has appeared ever in new forms throughout the Christian centuries.

(4) In Apostolic times poor-relief was closely con- nected with the Eucharist through the oblations an<l agapx and tlirough the activity of the bishops and deacons (.\cts, vi, 11 sqq.). Among the Christians of Jerusalem there was voluntary community of the use of goods, though probably not community of property (Acts, iv, 37; xii, \2). The care of the poor was .siich that no one could be said to be in neeil (Acts, ii, 34, 44, 4.5; iv, 32 .sqq.). By the institution of a common ])ursc, administered first by the Apostles

and later by the deacons, poor-rehef received a public character. The pubhc relief of the poor was to be completed bj* private charity (I Tim., v, 14). Private individuals had to care first for members of their own families, the neglect of whom was likened with apostasy (I Tim., v, 4, S, 16), then for needy mem- bers of their community, then for the Christians of other communities, and finally for non-Christians (Gal., ^-i, 10). The Apostles proclaimed the high moral dignity and the obligation of work: "If any man will not work, neither let him eat " (II Thess., iii, 10); forbade intercourse with the lazy (loc. cit., 11), who are unworthy of the Christian community (6 sqq.); and forbade the support of lazy beggars (I Thess., ii, 9; iv, 11; Ephes., iv, 28; I Tun., v, 3, 13). Almsgiving is for the propertied persons an obligation of merciful charity; the poor, however, have no claim thereto; they should be modest and thankful (I Tim., vi, 6, 8, 10, 17).

(5) In sub-Apostolic times, especially during the persecutions, the bishop continues to be the ad- ministrator of the church property and the director of poor-relief. His assistants were the deacons and deaconesses (q. v.). To the office of deaconess at first only widows, but later also elderly spinsters were admitteG (Rom., x^-i, 1; I Cor., ix, .5; I Tim., V, 9). In addition to assisting at the Di\ane ser- \'ices and at giving instruction, they had to visit the sick and prisoners, to care for poor widows, etc. Individual provision for the poor and visitation of the poor in their houses in accordance with a special list {malricula) were strictly practised in every Chris- tian communit}-. Ahns were given only after close examination into the conditions, and the abuse of charity by strangers was prevented by obliging new- comers to work and demanding letters of recommenda- tion. No lazy beggar might be supported (Didache, XI, xii; Constit. Apost., II, iv; III, \ni, 6). It was sought to make the poor independent by assigning them work, procuring them positions, gi\'ing them tools etc. Orphans and foundlings were entrusted to Christian families for adoption and education (Const. Apost., IV, i); poor boys were entrusted to master artisans for instruction (loc. cit., ii). The sources from which the Church derived its receipts for poor-relief were: the surplus of the oblations at the Offertory of the Mass, the offerings of alma (Collecia) at the beginning of the service, the alms- box, the firstlings for the support of the clergj-, the tithes (Const. Apost., VIII, xxx), the jdeld of the money collections made regularly on fast days and also in times of special need, and finally the free contributions.

(6) After the time of Constantine, who granted the Church the right to acquire property, the eccle- siastical possessions grew, thanks to the numerous gifts of land, foundations, and the tithes which gradually became established (from the sixth cen- tury) also in the West. The defects of Roman legislation in this respect, the incessant wars, the crowding of the poor into the Church, made the task of relieving the poor ever more difficult. The bishop administered the church property, being assisted in the superintendence of poor-relief by the deacons and deaconesses, and in many places by special aconomi or by the archpresbj-ters or archdeacons. In the \\'est the division of the ecclesiastical income into four parts (for the bishop, the other clerg)-, church building, and poor-relief) began in the fourth cen- tury. In addition to the provision for the poor in their homes, the increasing mass of poverty demanded a new institution — the hospital. It was to serve for a special cla.ss of the needy, and was the regular completion of the general charitable activitj' of the district. Such institutions for the collective care of the poor were: the diaconice, great store-houses near the church, where the jjoor daily enjoyed meala in