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 POLAND

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POLAND

was being gradually formed by sermons and transla- tions, was not mature for such work until the second half of the sixteenth century, circumstances favour- able to its development having arisen only in the beginning of that century. Books printed in Polish — translations or paraphrases — date from 1520; from this time, too, the influence of Italian culture, fostered by Queen Bona, increased notably. Latin versifica- tion became fashionable, books on historical and poUt- ical subjects appeared, as well as the early attempts of some writers (Rey, Orzechowski, and Modrzewski) who afterwards became famous.

Second Period (1 .543- 1600). —More political treat- ises, together with books of reUgious controversy, fol- lowed in and after the days of Sigismund Augustus (1550-70). Cathohc literature — represented by the Jesuit Wujek, who translated the Bible into Polish, by Hosius, the great theologian who wrote "Confessio fidei Christians" and presided at the Council of Trent, by Ivromer, and others, increased in volume and importance. Nor was there less activity in the opposite camp, where Budny, Krowicki, and the preacher Gregory of Zarnowiec were distinguished. Poetry in the vernacular now first appeared : Rey and Bielski produced didactic poems and satires; John Kochanowski, in 1557, wrote the first of his poems, the beauty of which has not been surpassed by any save those of IMickiewicz. Towards the close of the cen- tury the political tractates of Cornicki and of Wars- zewicki were written, also many works of history, notably Heidenstein's "Rerum polonicarum libri XII". At this period, too, the Jesuit Skarga, the purest embodiment of Pohsh patriotism in literature, preached and wrote, calling upon all Poles to save their country, though that country was then so power- ful that his cry of alarm was like the voice of a prophet. Rey and Kochanowski, and many another, had the like misgivings, but none felt them so deeply, or could express them with such eloquence. — This was the Golden Age of Polish hterature. Kochanowski, in- deed, can scarcely be called versatile, though as a lyric poet he excels, and did much for his country's literature, adding beauty to its poetry, which, until then, had been only mediocre. Historical and polit- ical writing flourished, and the Polish controversial writers were excellent on both sides.

Third Period (1600-4S).—X decided falling-off took place after the beginning of the seventeenth century. Poets merely imitated John Kochanowski, badly -set phrases often taking the place of in- spiration. Those who aspired to bring about a new departure (if we except Peter Kochanowski, the trans- lator of Tasso and Ariosto) were not sufficiently tal- ented, while most writers were careless, though often brilliant, amateurs who felt no such need. Szj-mon- owicz, indeed, was a humanist of the old school and a true artist; so were his disciples, the brothers Zimo- rowicz; but of these two, the one died young, having produced very little, while the other, though he main- tained the good traditions for a long time, was unable to raise the level of Polish poetry. Szymonowicz's idyls, perfect as they are, show the poverty of a period that can boast of nothing else. Sarbiewski, a con- temporary poet of great talent, unfortunately wrote only in Latin. The prose writers of this period are also inferior to their predecessors, the historians being the best, and the beat among the historians, Lubien- ski and Biasecki, were perhaps worthy successors to those of former times. Memoirs began to abound, curious and important as sources of history, the best of them being those of Stanislaus Olbraclit Radziwill and Zolkiewski. As a political es.sayist similar to tho.se of the former period, but less eminent liecause not so original, Sfarowolski deserves imutioii; nor must we forget Birkowski's sermons, which, thuugli often in bad taste and full of literary shortcomings, are strikingly representative of the ideal of religious

chivalry admired in Poland wlien patriotism and piety vied with each other.

Fourth Period {164S-96).—The writers of this period lack originality and interest; they merely tread in the beaten track. Morsztyn and Twardowski translated some medieval romances and Italian tales, which might have proved mines of fresh interest, but were not adequately worked. One form of literature then becoming effete while no other was developed, decay set in. French and Italian authors were studied to the detriment of the ancients, badly exploited, and imitated amiss; conceits were sought after, bad taste became fashionable, the Baroque style obtained vogue everywhere, the pest of "macaronics" raged. Never had "there been so many writers, never so few earnest literary artists; most wrote merely to divert them- selves and friends, and did not even care to print their own slovenly work. Much of it was lost, or was only recovered generations later, in manuscript — like Pasek's "Memoirs", found in 1836, and Potocki's "War of Chocim", in 1849, and many other works invaluable to the historian. Translations from French and Italian writers appeared, some original novels, some good poems — e. g. those of Kochowski, instinct with patriotic feeling, of Wenceslaus Potocki, whose epics have the true heroic ring, the pleasant idyls of Gawinski, Opalinski's satires, which, though very in- ferior in style, were extremely bitter and often hit their mark, Andrew Morsztyn's "Psyche", also his " Cid ", translated from Comeille. In prose, eloquence, both religious and secular, was blighted by the same affectation and bad taste. History remained what it had been, a mere chronicle of facts; the political essays were woefully inferior to those of former times. In short, at the end of the seventeenth century, Polish literature was in full decay, the only worthy representative of the national spirit being Kochowski, in a few of his lyrical productions, and \V. Potocki.

Fifth Period {1696-1763).— It was fated to fall still lower — so low, indeed, that it scarce deserved the name of literature. Among the writers of this time, Jablonowski, Druzbacka (the first Polish authoress), Rzewuski, Zaluski, and Minasowicz were the least wretched; history was represented only by the "Mem- oirs" of Otwinowski. Yet even at this lowest ebb we find everywhere a spirit of sincere, unaffected piety, untouched as yet by French flippancy and unbe- lief, together with a feeling of discontent with ex- isting conditions and a desire for reform. Karwicki, Leszczynski (King Stanislaus), and Konarski were thinkers who did noble work in the sense of political regeneration. The tide was now at its lowest, and about to turn.

Sixth Penod (1763-95).— As to the necessity of re- form, the nation was divided into two parties. The reforming party was considerably strengthened after the first partition of Poland, and the Four Years' Diet followed with a most liberal constitution, to which Russia and Prussia replied by dividing Poland a second time. Kosciuszko took up arms for his coun- try, but failed; the third partition took place, and Poland, as a separate polity, existed no more. Mean- while, though the nation itself was tottering to its fall, its literature had already begun to revive. New ten- dencies, new forms, new talents to realize them, were appearing, the very humiliation of belonging to a people barren of literary creations stirred up patriots to write. The influence of French letters, which had originated with Marie Louise Gonzaga, queen of John Casimir, continued and increased, not indeed without injury to faith and morals; Voltaire's Deism, Rous- seau's false sentimentality, the materialism of Diderot and his followers, had tlieir echoes in Poland. Every form of Liberalism too, from its first parliamentary shape to the sanguinary terrorism of later times, was in turn adopted from French patterns. But during all this time public opinion was ripening. Konarski'a