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 POLAND

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POLAND

measures: the primate put all sectarians under the ban of the Church, and it was decided to establish an eccle- siastical court of inquisition. Catholic congresses were also assembled. But all these means were in- effectual to check the Reformation, which was, in fact, favoured by some of the bishops.

In 1552, at the Diet of Piotrkow, it was proposed to summon a Polish national synod both for Catholics and for heretics, and in 1555 a resolution was adopted, by which heretics were not to be prosecuted on ac- count of their belief until the holding of this synod. The Protestant preachers returned to Poland and the sectarians formed a union against Catholicism. Re- ligious war first broke out in all its violence under Sigismund Augustus (1548-72), who did not defend Catholicism with the same con%-iction and firmness as his father. His vacillating conduct inspired the heretics with courage. In 1550 demands were made for the abolition of celibacy, celebration of Mass in the vernacular, and communion under both forms. Bishops were deprived of the right to sit in jutlgment on heresy. Monks were expelled; churches were seized. The confusion in the land grew steadily worse. The heretics, themselves of the most varied creeds, quarrelled with one another. Alarmed by the progress of the Reformation in Poland, Rome sent Luigi Lippomano thither as nuncio. At this time, too, the first Jesuits came to Poland. The papal legate, Commendone, carried out the reform of the Catholic Church, and in this way deprived the Re- formers of their pretext. He was also able to secure from the king two decrees (1564): one against non- Catholic aliens, the other against native Poles who sought in any waj' to injure the Catholic Church.

The Jesuits, introduced into Poland in 1564 by Hosius, Bishop of Ermland, opened their schools in many places, successfully conducted debates with the heretics, and energetically contended against heresy both from the pulpit and in writing. Under their influence the families of the magnates began to return to the Catholic Church. In 1571 — the year when the Conference of Warsaw secured freedom of belief for the dissidents — the Jesuit houses in Poland were organized into a separate province. The heretics still continued to cause disturbances, but fortune deserted them. After the short reign of Henry of Valois (1574- 75) Stephen Bdthori succeeded to the throne (1576- 86). The latter openly supported the Jesuits in their endeavours, and under his protection they founded a very large number of new schools. The next king, also, Sigismund III Vasa (15S8-1632), gave no sup- port to the dissidents; on the contrary, he confirmed the rights of the Catholic Church (1588) and, as a good Catholic, so influenced many of his magnates by his pious life that they returned to the religion of their fathers. The reconcihation of the Ruthenian Church was effected in 1595; and the Armenians, who were domiciled here and there in Poland, also united with the Catholic Church. Wladislaw IV (1632-48) in- troduced into Poland the Piarists, who established numerous schools. In his dealings with the mutually hostile sects this king pursued a policy of duplicity, by which a horrible war was brought upon a later generation. At this time there were in Poland 750 convents, representing 20 male and 15 female orders. He was succeeded on the throne by John Casimir (1648-68), who had previou.sly been a Jesuit (1643) and then a Cardinal (1645). To the general distress of this reign the dissidents contributed not a little. For this reason, the Socinians (1658), the Arians (1661), and other sects were driven out of Poland. In return the king received from the pope the title Rex Orlhodoxus. Bowed down by his misfortunes, he resigned the crown and took up his residence in Paris, where he lived until 1672 as titular Abbot of St. Ger- main. Under his successors upon the Polish throne, Michael Wisniowiecki (1669-72) and John III Sobie-

ski, the solicitude of the people for the Faith and their efforts to repress heresy steadily increased.

When, after the death of John Sobieski, Frederick II, Elector of Saxony, assumed the Government (1697- 1733), he affirmed in his coronation oath that he would not confer any high offices on the dissidents, although toleration was assured them. This king had abandoned Protestantism and become a Catholic; although a lukewarm Catholic, and leading a repre- hensible life, he nevertheless restricted the liberties of the heretics (1716), and they were removed from public office (1743). At the same time violent dis- putes were carried on with the clergy over appoint- ments to bishoprics, ecclesiastical courts, payment of taxes, etc. The endless wars during the reign of this king led to the oppression of the clergy, im- poverishment and deteriora- tion of the churches, and, among the no- bility, to de- moralization and lack of sympathy for the common people in their distress. The priests in their sermons de- fended the peas- ants against the tyranny of the nobility and finally suc- ceeded in ob- taining a legal decision (1764) which made noblemen lia- ble to the death penalty for killing a peasant. Frederick Augus- tus III (1733-63) confirmed the decrees Lssued during the lifetime of his father against the dissidents, but beyond this he was wholly unconcerned about church and state.

The next ruler, Stanislaus Augustus Poniatowski (1764-95), was a man of culture and actively promoted popular education, but the evil conditions had grown beyond his control. During his reign the bonds of matrimony, the verj' basis of all society, became so loosened, and the number of divorces reached such an alarming total, that Benedict XIV was compelled to address the Polish bishops in three Bulls (1741, 1743, 1748) in reference to this evil. In addition to this the neighbouring states began to interfere in behalf of the non-Catholics in Poland, demanding that they should be given the same rights as Catholics (1766); this, however, was denied. Thereupon the dissidents formed a confederation at Radom (1767), and the Diet was compelled to grant them all the rights enjoyed by Catholics except the right to the Crown. Independently of this, the right to convoke sj-nods was granted them; mixed courts, generally with a majority of non-Catholic members, were ap- pointed to decide questions involving religion. In mixed marriages the sons were to follow the religion of the father, the daughters that of the mother. Un- restricted permission was also granted the dissidents to build places of worship. I\Ieanwhile Rome re- minded the Poles that, as knights in the ser\Mce of Christ, it was their duty to break a lance for Catholi- cism. In defenseof the Faith the Confederation of Bar was formed (1768-72), but it only added to the confu- sion and misfortune of the country. Coming from