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 POLAND

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POLAND

(1364) and organized a militia. When he inherited the Principality of Halicz (Galicia), a part of Little Russia, he brought this district to a high degree of pros- perity b}' his policies. Casimir died without issue, and with him the Piast dynasty became extinct.

During Casimir's reign the clergy, on account of their services in bringing about the unification of the kingdom, gained extraordinary popularity, all the more because they were the onh' educated element of the nation. There were seven religious orders: Benedictines, Templars, Cistercians, Dominicans, Franciscans, Lateran Canons, and Prtemonstraten- sians. Libraries and schools were to be found only in the convents, where, also, the poor, the sick, and the crippled received comfort and help. Besides pro- moting religion, some of the convents, especially those of the Cistercians, sought to promote agriculture by clearing forests, laying out gardens, and introducing new varieties of fruits, etc. The Cistercians em- ployed the lay members attached to their order in manual labour, under strict regulations, in their fields, gardens and workshops. The Xorbertine, Cistercian, Dominican, Franciscan, and Benedictine nuns de- voted themselves more particularly to the education of girls. Laymen despised learning as something un- worthy of them. On the other hand, the clergy only unwillingly admitted laymen into their schools, which they regarded as preparatory institutions for those intending to take orders. The first schools were estab- lished by the Benedictines at Tj-niec, but as early as the thirteenth centuiy this order, composed for the most part of foreign-born members, ceased teaching. The secular clerg)' established schools in the cathe- dral, collegiate, and parish churches.

While Casimir still lived the nobility elected as his successor Louis, King of Hungary (1370-82), who assumed the regency without opposition immediately after Casimir's death. Under him the relations exist- ing between the people and the Cro-mi underwent substantial changes. Louis had no sons, only daughters, and he was anxious that one of these should occupy the Throne of Poland. With this object in view he began to treat with the Polish nobles. The nobles assented to his plan and in return received numerous privileges. Thereafter there was bargaining and haggling with each new king, a course which finally resulted in the complete limitation of the royal power. On the other hand, the despotism of the aristocracy increased in proportion as the power of the kings declined, greatly to the detriment of the other estates of the realm. Louis was succeeded, after much hesitation on her part, by Queen Hedwig (Jadwiga), in the year 1384. The Poles urged her marriage to Jagiello, or Jagellon, the Prince of Lithuania, but on condition that he and all his people should embrace Christianity. As soon as Jagiello had accepted this proposal and had been baptized, he was crowTied King of Poland (1386-1434)— on the strength of being the consort of Queen Hedwig. Soon after the close of the coronation festivities at Cracow a large body of ecclesiastics crossed into Lithuania, where, after a short resistance on the part of the heathen priests, the people were baptized in vast multitudes. One of the most important tasks of the united kingdom of Poland and Lithuania was the final reckoning with the Teutonic Knights, whose power still threatened both countries. In 1409 began a war which was sig- nalized by the crushing defeat of the order at Tannen- berg-Grilnfelde. The battle of Tannenberg broki> for all time the power of the order, and placed Poland among the great powers of Europe. Until then Poland had been looked upon as a semi-civilized coun- try, where the natives were little better than savages, and culture was represented by the German clergy and coloni.sts. With the battle at Tannenberg this period of disrepute was at an end.

The influence of the Polish clergy was still further

increased after the union of Poland and Lithuania The royal chancery was administered by clerics. The clergy now (1413-16) caused the adoption of a whole series of enactments against heresy with especially severe provisions against apostates. In the general synods, in which the PoUsh clergy had formerly been classed as German, its representatives in the course of time received even greater attention, and the candi- dacy of Polish church dignitaries for the papal Throne was considered in all seriousness. Pohsh ecclesiastics brought it about that the adherents of the Eastern Schism in the Pro\ance of Halicz (Galicia) made their submission to the Holy See at Florence in 1439. Jagiello's son, Wladislaw (1434-44) in the year 1440 accepted the Hungarian (jrown also, in order that, with the united forces of the two kingdoms, he might successfully resist the power of the Turks. He gained a brilliant ^■ictory over the Turks (1443), but, continuing the war at the pope's instance, in spite of the treaty of peace, met with disaster, and fell in the battle of Varna. His successors, Casimir the Jagellon (1447-92), John Albert (1492-1501), and Al- exander (1501-06), wrought for the welfare of theState with varying success. The son of Alexander, Sigismund I (1506-48), sought to consolidate his military power and replenish his treasury. He succeeded in redeeming the mortgaged estates of the Crown, but could not ob- tain the consent of the nobility to the formation of a standing army and the payment of regular taxes. Sigis- mund also carried on several wars — with the Russians, the Tatars, and the Wallachians. In his reign, too, the secularization of the domains of the Teutonic order took place. The grand master, Albert, with the whole chapter and a majority of the knights, abjured their allegiance to the emperor, and adopted Luther- anism, an example followed by a large part of the Prussian nobility and all the commonalty. At the same time the land which had heretofore belonged to the order was proclaimed as a secular Prussian prin- cipality. Poland, desirous of continuing its suzerainty over Prussia, sanctioned these changes (1525), on con- dition, however, that Albert should swear allegiance to the Polish king. Albert accepted these terms, and Prussia accordingly became a fief of the Jagellons. Towards the end of Sigismund's reign, between 1530 and 1540, a powerful tendency towards reform in reli- gious matters manifested itself throughout Poland. This reform was indeed necessary. At the close of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth century the clergy were thoroughly depraved. As a memorial, presented to the papal nuncio by the better elements, proves, the bishops were concerned only about the attainment of new dignities and the collection of their revenues; they oppressed the labourers on church lands, keejiing them at work even on Sundays and holy days; the priests were uneducated and in many cases were only half-grown youths; the clergy were venal; monks dressed in silken robes often shared in the carousals of the nobility. The nobles envied the flourishing estates of the clergy. Thus a fruitful soil was provided for the spread of heresies in Poland. The spread of Hussite doctrines was not arrested until as late as 1500. The aristocracy, especially the younger members, who had attended foreign univer- sities, now began to turn more and more to Calvinism, because this religion gave laymen a voice in matters affecting the church. Complete freedom of speech and belief was introduced. From all sides the Re- formers, driven from other countries on account of their teachings, migrated to Poland, bringing with them a multiplicity of sects. The depraved clergy were unable to maintain their supremacy. Zebrzy- dowski. Bishop of Cracow, was wont to say openly: "You may believe in what you will, provided you pay me the tithe". Moreover, many of the clergy married. The aristocracy regarded the new doctrines !»a an advance upon the old, drove the Cathohc