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 FARMA

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PARMA

Italiana", of which five volumes appeared between 1848 and 1874; the next five were issued by T. Caruel (to 1894) with the assistance of Parlatore's MS. This worlc stands in liigh repute among all botanists. Mention should also be made of "Lezioni di botanica comparata" (Florence, 1843) and" Monographiadelle fumarie" (Florence, 1844). To the sixteenth volume of DecandoUe s "Prodromus", Parlatore contributed the accounts of the eoniferi and gnetaces; to Webb's "Histoire naturelle des iles Canaries" (Paris, 1836- 50), the accounts of the umbelligeri and graminae. In 1842 Boissier, the botanist, named a genus of cruciferi "Parlatoria".

Sacardo, La botanica in Italia, I, II (Venice, 1895, 1901); Haynaldo in Literar. Berichte aus Ungarn, III (Budapest, 1879).

Joseph Rompel.

Parma, Diocese of. Central Italy. The city is situated on the river of the saziie name, an affluent of the Po, flowing through a fertile plain, where grain and vines are cultivated; it also contains many fine pas- tures; the silk culture is highly developed, as also the cheese, tobacco, and leather industries.

The cathedral was begun in 1060, to replace the ancient one destroyed by fire two years earlier; finished in 1074, it was dedicated in 1106 by Pas- chal II. It is a fine example of the Lombard style, in the shape of a Latin cross, with three naves; three tiers of galleries, supported by small columns, give a bright aspect to the fagade; the cupola, of the six- teenth century, is adorned with frescoes by Cor- reggio, Parmigianino (Girolamo Mazzuola), and other masters; the inlaid work and the carvings of the choir and of the sacristy are by Lendinara and the Consor- zialis; there are four .statues by Giacomo and Dami- ano da Gonzate; the ciborium of the high altar, with its beautiful sculptures, is of the fifteenth century; in tlie crypt is the tomb of the Bishop St. Bernardo, with sculptures by Prospero Clementi. The baptistery is separate, in the shape of an irregular octagon, and was begun in 1196 by the architect and sculptor Benedetto Antelami.

Other churches of note are: San Giovanni Evan- gelista, formerly of the Benedictines, founded in 981, restored in 1510, fapade by Siraone Aloschino (1604), contains the best paintings of Correggio and Mazzuola; the Steccata (1521), by Zaocagni, on the plan of a Greek cross, with a majestic cupola, containing pic- tures by Parmigianino and other masters; the Annun- ziata, in which there are frescoes by Correggio; Santa Maria del Quartiere, the cupola of which was painted by Barnabei; S. Rocco; S. Antonio; S. Sepolcro con- tains works by Baghoni, Cignaroli, and Mazzola; and the Oratorio di S. Lodovico, formerly the ducal chapel. Among the palaces are: del Giardino (1.564), with frescoes by Carracci; della Pilotta (1.597), with a museum of antiquities, and a gallery of paintings especially rich in works by Correggio; and the Bib- lioteca Palatina, containing 303,836 volumes, 4770 manuscripts and 60,000 copper engravings. There are monuments in honour of Correggio and Parmi- gianino. The university, which dates from 1025, was instituted with pontifical privileges only in 1392, and was developed, more especially, by Duke Ferdinando di Borbone; there are several intermediary schools, besides the episcopal seminary, a seminary for for- eign missions, an Accademia of the fine arts, and State archives.

Parma was a city of the Boian Gauls, to which a Roman colony was sent in 183 B. c. In 377, the town suffered so greatly from the barbarians that St. Am- brose numbers it among the ruined cities. The Lom- bards took the city in 569 or 570, but their chief in 590 placed himself under the exarch Callinicus, who in 601 took possession of Parma, and imprisoned the Duke Godiscalc; the city however soon returned to the Lombards (603). According to the "Vita Hadri-

ani ", Parma was comprised in the donation of Pepin to the Holy See; but in reality, it appears to have be- longed to the kings of Italy, who, in the tenth century, gave over the government to its bishops, in whose hands it remained until St. Bernardo resigned it in 1106; from which time the city governed itself as a free commune, first under a consul, and then under a podesta. In 1167 it was obhged to join the Lombard League. In the thirteenth century ( 1 199, 1200, 1204), Parma was at war with its neighbour Piacenza; later it aroused the indignation of Innocent III by the rob- bery of a pontifical legate. In 1218 a peace was estab- Hshcd. In the struggle between the popes and Frede- rick II, Parma was at first on the side of the emperor; but in 1247, the Guelphs obtained possession of the town, which Frederick attempted in vain to take. LTberto Pallavicino, a native of Parma and a Ghibelline, stood out against Ezzelino, and succeeded in becoming podesta of Parma. In the fourteenth century (1303- 16) Gilberto da Correggio became lord; after him, Gianquirico Sanvitale and the brothers de' Rossi con- tended for the lordship; then came John of Bohemia (1331), Mastino della Scala (1335-41), the sons of da Correggio, Obizzo d'Este.

Finally, through purchase, Parma was annexed to the Duchy of Milan, and so remained, except for a time when it was governed by the de' Rossi and by the Terzi (1404-20), until 1499, when Louis XII of France took possession. In 1512 Juhus II united Parma to the Pontifical States ; it should be said that John of Bohemia had previously held it as a fief of the Holy See; but from 1515 to 1521, the city was again in the hands of the King of France. In 1545, Paul III erected Parma and Piacenza into a duchy, in favour of his son Pier- luigi Farnese; then began for Parma an era of splendour, during which Correggio (Allegri), Mazzola, and other famous masters showered treasures of art upon it. Pierluigi, loved by the people and hated by the nobles, fell at Piacenza, 10 Sept., 1547, the victim of a conspiracy directed by Ferrante Gonzaga, im- perial Governor of Mil.an. The garrison of Parma pre- vented the city from falling into the power of Ferrante, as Piacenza fell; and after long negotiations with the emperor, the son of Pierluigi, Otta\'io, was con- firnied in the duchy by Julius III in 15.50. That prince governed wisely, and a conspiracy against him by Count Landi was happily frustrated.

He was succeeded in 1585 by Alessandro Farnese, who became famous in the wars of Flanders and of France, and who died of a wound at Arras, in 1592. Ranuccio enlarged the state and protected study, founding a college of nobles; his son Odoardo, in 1622, succeeded to the duchy, which was governed during his minority by his mother Margherita and his uncle Cardinal Odoardo, as regents. During this reign there arose the contention with the Barberini for possession of the Duchy of Castro, an ancient fief of the Farnese, and that strife ended in the destruction of Castro, in 1649 under the son of Ranuccio II (1646-94). Duke Francesco, having died without children, was suc- ceded by his brother Antonio (1727-31), who also died without issue; and the succession to the duchy com- plicated the War of the Spanish Succession. By the treaty of Seville, the duchy was given to Charles of Bourbon, son of Philip V of Spain and l.sabella Far- nese (daughter of Francesco); and when Charles as- ceii(l<>d tlic throne of Xu]ilcs, the Peace of Vienna gave Parma to Austria (17:i6; the battle of Parma, 1734); but the intrigues of Isabella did not cease until the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle had given the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza. enlarged with that of Guastalla, to her other son Philip (1749). This prince inaugu- rated a French absolutism in the duchy, especially at the expense of the Church. In 1765 he fell from his horse, was trampled upon, and dogs tore him to pieces. Under Ferdinando (1765-1802) relations with the Holy See grew still more strained; in imitation of the