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PARIS

LEUL, L'assistance pubtique A P., ses bienfaiteurs et sa fortune mobiliire (2 vols.. Paris. 1904); P. charitable et premyant. pub- lished by the Central Office of Charitable Institutions (3rd ed., Paris, 1904) ; Manuel des (Entires (new ed., Paris, 1911), supplies the most recent information and a detailed description concerning all French Catholic charitable worlis, especially those of Paris.

Georges Gotatj.

Paris, UNivERSiTr of. — Origin and Early Organi- zation. — Three schools were especially famous at Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, and that of Sainte-Genevieve. The de- cline of royalty inevitably brought about the decline of the first. The other two, which were very old, like those of the cathedrals and the abbeys, are only faintly outlined during the early centuries of their existence. The glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until in the course of time it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much fre- quented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning. It is not until the tenth century, how- ever, that we meet with a professor of renown in the school of Ste-Genevieve. This was Hubold, who, not content with the courses at Liege, came to continue his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Genevieve, and by his teaching at- tracted many pupils. Recalled by his bishop to Bel- gium, he soon profited by a second journey to Paris to give lessons with no less success. As to the school of Notre-Dame, while many of its masters are mentioned simply as having been professors at Paris, in its later history we meet with a number of distinguished names: in the eleventh century, Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres; Drogo of Paris; ^Ianegold of Germany; Anselm of Laon. These two schools, at- tracting scholars from every country, produced many illustrious men, among whom were: St. Stanislaus, Bishop of Cracow; Gebbard, Archbishop of Salzburg; St. Stephen, third Abbot of Citeaux ; Robert d'Arbrissel, founder of the Abbey of Fontex'rault etc. The honour of having formed similar pupils is indiscriminately ascribed to Notre-Dame and to Ste-Genevieve, as du Molinet has justly remarked (Bibl. Sainte-Genevieve, MS.H. fr. 21, in fob, p. .576). Humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialect ii's, aritliinetic, geometry, music, and astronomy (Iririum and qumlri- viam). To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and the Fathers, and which was completed by the study of canon law. Three men were to add a new splendour to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste- Genevieve, namely William of Champeaux, Abelard, and Peter Lombard. A new school arose which ri- valled those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Genevieve. It owed its foundation to the same William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of St-Victor and it took the name of that abbey. Two men shed special radiance on this school, Hugh and Richard, who added to their own names that of the abbey at which they were religious and professors.

The plan of studies expanded in the schools of Paris as it did elsewhere. The great work of a monk of Bo- logna, known as the "Decretum Gratiani", brought about a division of the science of theology. Hitherto the discipline of the Church had not been separate from theology properly so-called; they were studied together under the same professor. But this vast collection necessitated a special course, which was naturallv undertaken first at Bologna, where Roman law was' taught. In France, first Orleans and then Paris erected chairs of canon law, which except at Paris were usually also chairs of civil law. The capi- tal of the kingdom might thus boast of this new pro- fessorate, that of the "Decretum Gratiani", to which before the end of the twelfth century were added the Decretals of Gerard (or CUrard) La Pucelle, Mathieu d' Angers, and Anselm (or Anselle) of Paris, but civil law was not included. In the course of the twelfth century also medicine began to be publicly taught at

Paris. A professor of medicine is mentioned in this city at this time, namely Hugo, "physicus excellens qui quadrivium docuit", and it is to be assumed that this science was included in his teaching.

For the right to teach, two things were necessary, knowledge and appointment. Knowledge was proved by examination, the appointment came from the examiner himself, who was the head of the school, and was known as scholasticus, capiscol, and even- tually as "chancellor". This was called the licence or faculty to teach. \\'ithout this authorization there was danger of the chairs being occupied by ignorant persons, whom John of Salisbury depicts as "chil- dren yesterday, masters to-day; yesterday receiving strokes of the ferrule, to-day teaching in a long gown" (Metalogicus, I, xxv in inii.). The licence had to be granted gratuitously. Without it no one could teach ; on the other hand, it could not be refused when the applicant deserved it.

The school of St-Victor, which shared the obliga- tions as well as the immunities of the abbey, conferred the licence in its own right; the school of Notre-Dame depended on the diocese, that of Ste-Genevieve on the abbey or chajJter. It was the diocese and the abbey or chapter which through their chancellor gave pro- fessorial investiture in their respective territories, i. e. the diocese in the city intra pontes and other places subject to the ordinary, the abbey or chapter on the left bank of the river as far as its jurisdiction reached. Consequently, as du Molinet exiilains, it was incum- bent on the chancellor of Nutre-Dame and Ste-Gene- vieve to examine "those who ajjplied to teach in the schools", to "license after study those who sought to be masters and regents" (op. cit., 58.5). Besides these three centres of learning there were several schools on the "Island" and on the "Mount". "Whoever", says Crevier "had the right to teach might open a school where he pleased, provided it was not in the vicinity of a principal school". Thus a certain Adam, who was of English origin, kept his "near the Petit Pont"; another Adam, Parisian by birth, "taught at the Grand Pont which is called the Pont-au-Change" (Hist. del'Univers.de Paris, I, 272).

The number of students in the schools of the capital grew constantly, so that eventually the lodgings were insufficient. Among the French students there were princes of the blood, sons of the nobility, and the most distinguished youths of the kingdom. The courses at Paris were considered so necessary as a completion of studies that many foreigners flocked to them. Popes Celestine II and Adrian IV had studied at Paris, Alexander III sent his nephews there, and, under the name of Lothaire, a scion of the noble family of Seigny, who was later to rule the Church as Innocent III, be- longed to the student body. Otto of Freisingen, Car- dinal Conrad, Archbishop of Mainz, St. Thomas of Canterbury, and John of Salisbury were among the most illustrious sons of Germany and England in the schools of Paris; while Ste-Genevieve became practi- cally the seminary for Denmark. The chroniclers of the "time call Paris the city of letters par excellence, placing it above Athens, Alexandria, Rome, and other cities: "At that time", we read in the "Chroniques de St-Denis", "there flourished at Paris philosophy and all branches of learning, and there the seven arts were studied and held in such esteem as they never were at Athens, Egypt, Rome, or elsewhere in the worid" ("Les gestes de Philii>pe-Auguste"). Poets said the same thing in their verses, and they compared it to all that was greatest, noblest, and most valuable in the world.

To maintain order among the students and define the relations of the professors, organization was neces- sary. It had its beginnings, and it developed as cir- cumstances permitted or required. Three features in this organization may be noted: first, the professors formed an association, for according to Matthew Paris,