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 PARACELSUS

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PARACELSUS

years later increased the number to 600. In Constan- tinople the number was reduced according to the Codex Justinianus (I, 2, 4) from 1100 to 950. The Parabolani arc not mentioned after Justinian's time. Though thoy were chosen by the bishop and always remained under his control, the Codex Theodosianus placed them under the supervision of the Pra-feclus Atiynsldlis. Tlu-y had neither orders nor vows, but they wi'ii' ciuniuTati'd among the clergy and enjoyed clerical privili'gi's and immunities. Their presence at public gatherings or in the theatres was forbidden by law. At times they took a very active part in eccle- siastical controversies, as at the Robber Synod of Ephesus.

BiNTERiM, Denkwilrdigkeiten der chriskath. Kirche, VI, 3, 30; Bingham, Antiquities, II, 37.

Patrick J. Healt.

Paracelsus, Theophrastus, celebrated physician and reformer of therapeutics, b. at the Sihlbriicke, near Einsiedeln, in the Canton of Schwvz, 10 Nov., 1493; d. at Salzburg, 24 Sept., 1541. He is known also as Theophrastus von Hohenheim, Eremita (of Einsiedeln), and Theophrastus Bombastus von Ho- henheim. It is now established that the family originally came from Wiirtemberg, where the noble family of Bombastus was in possession of the ances- tral castle of Hohenheim near Stuttgart until 1409, Paracelsus is tin; Latin form in common use among the German scholars of the time. Wilhelm Bombast von Hohenheim, ])hysician to the monastery of Ein- siedeln and father of Theophrastus, changed the family residence to Villach in Carinthia (c. 1502), where at the time of his death (8 Sept., 1534), he was city phj-sician.

Paracelsus mentions the following as his earliest teachers, his father, Eberhard Paumgartner, Bishop of Lavant, Matthajus von Scheldt, Bishop of Seckau, and jMatthffius Schacht, Bishop of Freising. He was initiated into the mysteries of alchemy by Joannes Trithemius (1402-1516), Abbot of Sponheim, and a prolonged interval spent in the laboratories of Sig- mund Fugger at Schwaz made him familiar with metallurgy. All his life restless and eager for travel, he attended the most important universities of Ger- many, France, and Italy, and, in 1526, went to Strasburg, where, already a doctor, he joined the guild of surgeons. The same year he was appointed, probably through the influence of Joannes CEcolam- padius, the theologian, and Joannes Frobenius, the publisher, to the office of city physician of Basle, with which was connected the privilege of lecturing at the university.

His teaching, as well as his opposition to the pre- vailing Galeno-Arabic system, the burning of Avi- cenna's writings in a public square, the polemical tone of his discourses, which, contrary to all custom, were delivered in German, his dissensions with the faculty, attacks on the greed of apothecaries, and to a certain extent, also, his success as a practitioner — all drew upon him the hatred of those in authority. In February he fled from Basle to Colmar. A typical vagrant, his subsequent life was spent in continual wandering, surrounded by a troop of adventurers, with the reputation of a charlatan, but all the while observing all things with remarkable zeal, and busied with the composition of his numerous works. In 1529 we find him at Nuremberg, soon afterwards at Beritzhausen and Ambcrg, in 1531 at St. Gall, later at Inn.sVjruck, in 1534 at Sterzing and Meran, in 1535 at Bad PfiiiTers, Augsburg, 1537 at Vienna, Presburg, and Villach, and finally at Salzburg, where he died a natural death and, in accordance with his wish, was buried in the cemetery of St. Sebastian. The present tomb in the porch of St. Sebastian's Church, was erected by some unknown person in 1752. According to recent research the portrait on the monument ia

Theophrastds Paracelsus

that of the father of Paracelsus. Paracelsus did not join the ranks of the Reformers, evincing, rather, an aversion to any form of religion. The clause in his will, however, giving dirrctions for a requiem Mass would indicate thul before his death he regardi^d him- self as a member of the Church.

Paracelsus is a phenomenon in the history of medi- cine, agenius tardily recognized, who in his impetuosity sought to overturn the old order of things, t.hereby rousing hitter antagonists. He sought to substitute something hotter for what seemed to liiin antiquated and erroneous in therapeutics, thus fiilling into the mistake of other violent reformers, who, during the process of rebuild- ing, underesti- mate the work of their contempora- ries. He was not in touch with tin- humanist move- ment or with tlic study of anatomy then zealously pursued, the nio>i prominent factors in reorganization ; leaving out of con- sideration In^ great services 1 1 1 special depart- ments, he stands alone and misun- derstood. His in- fluence was felt specially in \\'it- tenberg, but only in a few schools of Germany, while he was entirely discounted through- out Italy.

He sought the cause of pathological changes, not in the cardinal humours, blood, phlegm, yellow and black gall (humoral pathology), but in the entities, which he divided into ens aalrorum (cosmic influences differing with climate and country), ens veneni (toxic matter originating in the food), the cause of conta- gious diseases, ens nalurale et spirituale (defective physical or mental constitution), and ens deale (an affliction sent by Providence). The diseases known as tartaric, especially gout and lithiasas, arc caused by the deposit of determinate toxins (tartar), are dis- covered chiefly by the urine test, and are cured by means of alkalies. Like the followers of Hippocrates he prescribes the observation of nature and dietetic directions, but attaches too great a value to experi- ence (empiricism). In nature all substances have two kinds of influences, helpful (essentia) and harmful (venena), which are separated by means of alchemy. It requires experience to recognize essences as such and to employ them at the proper moment. His aim was to discover a specific remedy (arcanum) for every disease.

It was precisely here, however, that he fell into error, since not infrequently he drew a conclusion as to the availability of certain remedies from purely external signs, e. g., when he taught that the pricking of tliistles cures internal inflammation. This untrust- worthy "doctrine of signatures" was at a later date de- veloped farther by Rademacher, and to a certain extent also by Hahnemann. Although the theories of Para- celsus as contrasted with the Galeno-Arabic sy.stem indicate no advance, inasmuch as they ignore entirely the stud}' of anatomy, still his reputation as a re- former of therapeutics is justified in that he broke new paths in the science. He may be taken as the founder of the modern materia medica, and pioneer of scientific chemistry, since before his time medical science received no assistance from alchemy. To