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 NORWAY

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NORWAY

by the Hanscatie League. Trnndlijein, formerly Niiiaros, a city of 40,000 iiihahituiits, was earlier tlie Bee of the Catholic archbishops, ami the jilace where the Catholic kings were crowncil ami huricd. Its fine cathedral, now in process of restoration, contains the bones of St. Olaf, the patron .saint of Norway. The army is not highly trained; men lietwecu twenty-three and thirty-three years of age are liable for mihtary duty. The modest w-cU-manned navy is only used for coast defence.

History. — Unlike the Swedes and Danes, the Nor- wegians were not organized even so late as the ninth centurj-. The name of king was borne by the chiefs and heads of separate clans, but their authority was limited and the rights of the subjects very exten- sive. Only by marauding expeditions were the Vik- ings able to gain honour and wealth, and at times also to acquire control of extensive districts. Their early history is lost in the fabulous tales of the bards. In 872, Harold Haarfager (Fair-Haired), after a decisive sea-Hght near Stavanger, establishetl his authority over all th<' clans. Those refusing to submit left the country and their possessions were confiscated. When Harold divided his kingdom among several sons, its permanence seemed once more uncertain, but Hakon the Good (q. v.) restored a transient unity and pro- cured an entrance for Christianity. Olaf Trygvesson continued the work of union after Hakon's death, and promoted the spread of the new faith, but in a sea-fight with the united forces of the Danes and Swedes he was killed about 1000 near Svalder (of uncertain location). The kingdom now fell apart, some portions coming un- der Cnut the Great of Denmark.

Finally Olaf, son of Harold Grenske and a descend- ant of Harold Haarfager (1015), re-established the boundaries of Norway, and aided Christianity to its final victory. At a later date Olaf became the patron saint of Norway. His severity so embittered the great families that they combined with Cnut and forced him to flee the country. Returning with a small army from Sweden, he was defeated and killed in the battle of Stiklestad (29 July, 10-30). His heroic death and the marvellous phenomena that occurred in con- nexion with his body completely changed the feeling of his opponents. His son, Magnus the Good, was unanimously chosen his successor (1035), and the Danish intruders were driven away. Magnus died childless in 1047, and the kingdom went to his father's half-brother Harold, son of Sigurd. Harold had won fame and wealth as a viking, and had been an impor- tant personage at the Byzantine Court. On accoimt of his grimness he was called Hardrada (the Stern). Impelled by ambition, he first waged a bloody war with Denmark and then attacked England. On an incursion into Northumberland, he was defeated at the battle of Stamford Bridge (1066). His son, Olaf the Quiet, repaired the injuries caused the country by Harold Hardrada's policy. Olaf 's successor, Magnus, conquered the Scotch islands, waged successful war with Sweden, and even gained parts of Ireland, where he was finally killed. One of his sons, Sigurd Jorsala- fari (the traveller to Jerusalem), went on a crusade to the Holy Land, while another son, Eystein, peacefully acquired .Jemtland, a part of Sweden. With Sigurd's death (1130) the kingdom entered upon a period of dis- order caused partly by strife between claimants to the throne, partly by rivalry between the secular and ec- clesiastical dignitaries, whose partisans (known as the Birkebcinar and the Baglar) perpetrated unbehevable outrages and cruelty on each other. The power of the king sank steadily, while that of the bishops increased. For a time Svcrre (1177-1202) seemed successful, but lasting peace was not attained until the reign of his grandson, Hakon the Old (1217-63). Hakon ruled with wisdom and force and w'as highly regarded by the rulers of other countries. During his reign Nor- way reached its greatest extent, including Greenland

and Iceland. He died in the Orkney Islands (12C3) while returning from an expedition against the Scotch

His piMK-e-loving son Magnus LdijuUiHie (the Law- Mi'iidcr) tried to eslalilish law and order and prepared a book of laws. His elforls to i)roni<ilc coinmi'rce and intercourse resulted unfiirtunalcly, as the llanseatic League, to which he granted many prixilcgcs, used these to the detriment of the (■(juntry, and gradually brought it into a state of grievous (h'pendence. With the death (1319) of the vigorous younger son of Mag- nus, Hakon V, the male line of Harold Ilarfager became extinct. The crown went to the three year old King Magnus Eriksson of Sweden, son of Hakon's daughter, Ingeborg; this brought about for the first time a close imion between the two kingdoms of north- ern Scandinavia. When King Magnus assumed the government (1332), it was soon evident that, al- though possessing many good qualities, he lacked force, fie seldom came to Norway, and the Norwe- gians felt themselves neglected. They forced him, when holding court at Varberg (1343), to send his younger son Hakon as viceroy to Norway, where Hakon so'on gathered an independent court, and in 1335 became the actual ruler. Seven years later he was elected King of Sweden by a part of the Swedish nobihty, but had to j'ield to Duke Albert of Mecklen- burg, chosen by an opposing faction. In 1363 Hakon married Margaret, daughter of King Waldemar of Den- mark, and won with her a claim to the Danish throne. As Waldemar, when he died in 1375, left no male de- scendants, he was succec(l<>(l by their son, Olaf. Olaf also became King of Norway upon the death of his father, and died in 1387. His mother, an able and ener- getic ruler, entered at once upon the administration of Denmark. In Norway she was not only made ruler for life, but her nephew, Eric of Pomerania, was acknow- ledged as the lawful heir. Meanwhile, Albert of Meck- lenburg, greatly disliked in Sweden and the estates, entered into negotiations with Margaret, whose troops took him prisoner (1389). The same year Eric was acknowledged King of Norway, and in 1395-6 as King of Denmark and Sweden. In 1397 the chief men of the three countries met at Kalmar to arrange a basis for a permanent legal confederation (the Union of Gal- mar). The plan failed, as no one country was willing to make the sacrifice necessary for the interest of all, but Eric was crowned king of the three united lands.

LTp to 1408 Margaret was the real ruler. With un- wearied activity she journeyed everywhere, watched over the administration of law and government, cut down the great estates of the nobles for the benefit of the crown, and protected the ordinary freeman. Denmark was always her first interest. She placed Danish officials in Sweden and forced the Church of that country to accept Danish bishops; the result was often unfortunate, as in the appointment of the Arch- bishop of Upsala (1408). Margaret's efforts to re- gain former possessions of the three Scandinavian countries were successful only in one case; she pur- chased the Island of Gotland from the Teutonic Knights. She died suddenly (1412) in the harbour of Flensburg whither she had gone to obtain Schles- wig from the Counts of Holstein. Left to him.self, the headstrong and hot-tempered Eric made one mis- take after another and soon foimd all the Hanseatic towns on the Baltic against him. Conditions were still worse after the death of his one faithful coun- sellor, his wife Phihppa, daughter of Henry IV of England. In Sweden increasing taxes, constant dis- putes with the clergy, and the appointment of bad officials aroused a universal discontent, which led later to dangerous outbreaks. Vain attempts were made (1436) to restore the tottering union. Disre- garding his promises, Eric withdrew to Gotland, where he remained inactive. In 1438 his deposition was de- clared by Norway and Sweden, and his nephew, Duke Christopher of Bavaria, was elected king. Upon