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 1866-71] Protection. Civil Service reform. 635 ively, and payable, principal and interest, in coin. The Republican party was not unanimous in support of these measures ; but, since the Democrats were very nearly unanimous against them, the Republican majority fairly deserves the credit for them. While the government credit was by no means placed beyond the reach of attack, it had certainly been established on a safe basis. The financial future seemed assured. An important result of the process of financial reconstruction was the fact that the country was committed to a policy of high protection. The industries taxed during the war had been granted ample duties on imports designed to compensate for their internal taxes. When the war ended, Congress, as has been said, rapidly wiped out these internal taxes, but, owing to pressure on the part of the manufacturing interests, re- frained from altering the tariff rates. Bills to reduce duties were almost uniformly unsuccessful; and in 1867, 1869, and 1870 the rates were actually raised on wool and woollens, steel rails, copper, and a few other articles. By the middle of Grant's term the war tariff, imposed mainly for revenue, had, by remaining unaltered, become a highly protective one ; and the manufacturing interests of the country had come to identify their prosperity with its retention. Finally, to complete its record, the Republican party in 1871 took steps toward a much needed reform in the Federal Civil Service. The evils of partisan appointments and removals, although attracting slight popular interest during the crisis of Reconstruction, had become so flagrant that certain members of Congress had begun a campaign for reform. Bills for a competitive examination system, introduced in each Congress by Jenckes of Rhode Island, failed of success ; but in Grant's first term the desired reform was at length attained, almost by chance, being incorporated as a " rider " to an Appropriation Bill on March 3, 1871. In this way the Republican Administration took a step apparently destined to be of incalculable benefit. These same years saw the settlement of pending foreign questions by the Administrations of Johnson and Grant, after a period in which brisk diplomatic activity, exhibited by Seward and Fish, successively Secretaries, gradually came to a standstill in the face of a strong popular disinclination for anything aggressive in foreign policy. Seward un- doubtedly did his best to retrieve his popularity, damaged through his adherence to Johnson's plan of reconstruction, by an energy in treaty-making and negotiation scarcely equalled in the history of the United States. A score of commercial and extradition treaties were made with Powers large and small, the two most important being those with China and Germany in 1868; and many similar treaties were concluded under his successor. Seward's principal efforts, however, were directed toward the settlement of the serious questions pending with France and Great Britain. As regards the French intervention in Mexico, although General Grant was quite ready to use force, Seward