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 422 Parties in Congress. [i852~60 their leaders by a sort of plebiscite. In its nominating convention each party had thereafter a governing body of its own, unrecognised by law, made up under the management of the smaller sort of local politicians in the innumerable voting districts of the several States, but dictating to Congress, pledging presidents beforehand to certain courses of action; itself irresponsible, unofficial, temporary, subject to be manipulated, swayed by sudden winds of passion. It showed a singular aptitude for affairs on the part of scores of unknown men in the widely separated communities of the country that this new, miscellaneous and occasional assembly should be so promptly devised, so easily handled, and so rapidly made into an established instrument of party government. By 1852 the nominating convention had already become the regular means by which party policy was to be determined and the personnel of the federal Executive chosen. The parliamentary regime had broken down because there was no organised method of leadership in Congress and no responsible ministry at the head of a dominant party and of the law-making Houses. The President's "cabinet," though in the early years selected from among men who had seen service in Congress and were the known and acknowledged leaders of their party, had never had a place on the floor of Congress. Congressional committees had for many years after the foundation of the government accepted the suggestions of the President and his advisers in matters of legislation; bills had often been framed in the executive departments which the Houses showed themselves very ready to adopt ; and the early Presidents had counted upon exercising a guiding influence in legislation as a natural prerogative in view of their position as accepted representatives of the nation. But Congress had by degrees broken away even from this private connexion with the executive, this connexion of advice and common counsel, and there had never been any public connexion whatever. The Houses looked more and more exclusively to their own committees or to their own private members for the bills which they were to act upon, and grew more and more jealous of "outside" suggestions or assumptions of parliamentary leadership. There was still always a nominal "Administration" party, and always a party also of the " Opposition," in the House and Senate ; but the "Administration" party had grown every session more and more dis- posed to dictate to the President rather than submit to his leadership ; and Congress was not homogeneous enough to follow distinct or con- sistent lines of action. It was itself a miscellaneous body, made up, as the nominating conventions were made up, by the free, non-cooperative choice of separate and differing localities. There was no responsible leadership either in Congress or out of it. And so irresponsible leader- ship was substituted, the leadership whose function was in the electoral districts, in local campaign committees, in newspaper offices, in the management that was private and away from the forum of debate