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 1776] British and American commanders. 211 America; and, with a few exceptions, among whom I^i Fayette was conspicuous, those who joined the American army were vain, exacting, and incompetent. The same exaggerated value for European soldiership had a direct effect on the American army itself. Lee and Gates, Washington's two chief subordinates in the early part of the war, had both served in the English army. Both were vain, shallow men, with little real devotion to the cause which they had embraced. There is much reason to believe that Lee, while holding a command in the colonial army, was actually carrying on a treasonable correspondence with the British government, and advising them as to military operations. No suspicion of dishonesty or disloyalty attaches to Gates ; but his egotism made him the tool of unscrupulous men. But in regard to the chiefs in control of affairs, whether at home or abroad, Great Britain was far worse off than America. Whatever may be our view as to the influence of individuals on the events of history, one may safely say that the mother-country in the struggle with her colonies was singularly unfortunate alike in her military administrators and her commanders. The Secretary at War was Lord George Germain, a man whose own military career had been tainted with grave suspicion of cowardice, a cold formalist without the redeeming virtues of method and exactitude, and wholly incapable of inspiring colleagues or subordinates with any enthusiasm. The British Commander-in-Chief, Sir William Howe, had little but personal courage to recommend him. He was an inert, pleasure-loving man. What was worse, his sympathies were in a great measure with the colonists ; and he had not learnt the simple lesson that, however desirable compromise and conciliation may be, the lukewarm conduct of a war is the worst possible way in which to obtain them. More than one of his proceedings can hardly be explained except on the theory that he dreaded a decisive victory : some actions of his opponents can hardly be explained unless we suppose that they knew and counted on his weakness. Of Howe's two chief subordinates, Burgoyne and Clinton, the former was a man of fashion with a taste for literature, with plenty of courage, many attractive qualities, and some military experience, but with none of the special gifts needed for the heavy tasks laid upon him. Clinton was probably a better soldier than either Howe or Burgoyne, but he seems to have had an unfortunate incapacity for effective co-operation. In Great Britain the Declaration of Independence did less to consolidate opinion than might have been expected. Yet in truth those who had not been alienated by such proceedings as the Boston tea riot and the invasion of Canada would have been very illogical if they had been influenced by the frank avowal of a doctrine on which the colonists had been acting for some two years. Before the news of these events reached England, the Ministry had decided to make one CH. vii 142