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'''FIGURE 46. The United States also joined in the festivities honoring Copernicus' 500th anniversary by issuing a commemorative stamp and by participating in a series of prestigious gatherings among the scientific community (U/OU)''' (picture)

'''FIGURE 47. Frederic Chopin (U/OU)''' (picture)

reform, Polish replaced Latin as the language of instruction in schools. An interest in drama led to the founding of the Polish National Theater in 1765. In poetry, two important trends in the classical tradition of the "golden age" appeared — one of a rationalistic nature under Ignacy Krasicki (1735-1801), the other of a lyric-sentimental nature under Franciszek Kurpinski (1741-1825). An awakening of national and social consciousness introduced sweeping political reform, which came too late, however, to forestall the final partition of Poland in 1795.

In the period of Partition, the continued existence of the national spirit manifested itself in a great creative outpouring, especially in literature. The first of three main literary movements of this period was inspired by the romanticism of Western Europe, where most of the Polish cultural elite lived in exile after the uprising of 1830-31. Dominating the Polish romantic movement were three outstanding exiled poets whose work propagated a messianic role for Poland and a concept of patriotism that became the "religion of the fatherland" — Adam Mickiewicz (1798-1855), leader of the movement and Poland's greatest writer; Juliusz Slowacki (1809-49), who was also a distinguished dramatist; and Zygmunt Krasinski (1812-59). In Poland, the most representative figure was Jozef Ignacy Kraszewski (1812-87), a prolific author of historical novels. Romanticism also produced Poland's greatest musical genius, Frederic Chopin (1810-49), whose compositions are associated with such national musical expressions as the mazurka and the polonaise (Figure 47).

After the abortive 1863 uprising against Russia, there developed a movement known as positivism, which renounced armed resistance for constructive work and generally gave voice to a rationalistic rather than romantic outlook. Typical of this view was the scholarly work of the Krakow historical school, which expounded the thesis that Poland's downfall was caused by its own shortcomings. In literature, numerous distinguished novelists appeared, among them Boleslaw P (1847-1912) and Henryk Sienkiewicz (1846-19), author of the internationally known Quo Vadis and winner of the 1905 Nobel Prize. An historical trend in painting found its most illustrious representative in Jan Matejko (1838-93). Toward the end of the 19th century, positivism gave way to a neoromantic movement called Young Poland, which developed in close association with Western European art and literature. The foremost literary personalities were Stefan Zeromski (1864-1925), a novelist intensely concerned with social and national problems; Wladyslaw Reymont (1868-1925), whose monumental epic, Chlopi (The Peasants), earned him the Nobel Prize in 1924; and Stanislaw Wyspianski (1869-1907), almost equally gifted in poetry, drama, and painting. In painting, impressionistic and symbolistic trends modeled after the French dominated, but they were tempered by the rediscovery of native folk art and architecture of the southern Tatry mountains.

Restoration of Poland's independence at the end of World War I released intellectual life from its almost exclusive preoccupation with political affairs. Freed from the "sacred burden" of pursing national goals, writers in the decade of the 1920's focused their efforts on a lyric poetry which dealt with present-day life in the modern city and abounded in innovation and

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