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643-664] as a base, but the main fighting forces of Egypt were concentrated round Alexandria, which once more had temporarily fallen into the hands of the Byzantines.

Only after Alexandria had been reconquered and 'Abdallāh ibn Sa'd had become governor of Egypt was a new expedition to the west on a larger scale undertaken under his guidance, probably as early as the end of 647. The Byzantine state authority was now in complete dissolution. The Patricius Gregory of Carthage had revolted the year before, probably because, after the second fall of Alexandria, he considered himself safe from any energetic steps on the part of the Greeks. Nevertheless Carthage itself does not appear to have given him its adhesion, and he based his rule in fact on the Berbers, for which reason he took up his residence in the interior, in the ancient Sufetula, the present Sbeitla. To how small an extent he must have been master of the situation is proved by the fact that he did not even take the field against 'Abdallāh. The latter, with separated detachments, plundered the territory of Tripolis, without being able to take the town itself; one Arab division in fact appears at that time to have penetrated to Ghadames. When 'Abdallāh arrived at the site of the subsequent Ḳairawān he turned and marched on Sbeitla, where he annihilated Gregory's army. The fate of the Patricius himself is uncertain; probably he fell in battle. This battle is also named after 'Aḳūba, a place lying somewhat further to the north. But here again no consolidation of the Arabian rule resulted. A counter attack on the part of the still unconquered towns was to be feared, and 'Abdallāh therefore allowed himself to be persuaded to retire on payment of an enormous sum of money, stated to have been 300 talents. The whole expedition lasted somewhat more than a year (647-648).

Hereupon the confusion following on the assassination of the Caliph Othman brought the expansion for the time being to a standstill. When however Mu'awiya had asserted his authority and his faithful ally 'Amr had again become master in Egypt, the expeditions towards the west were renewed, and in these 'Amr's nephew, the 'Uḳba ibn Nāfi' above mentioned, appears to have been the moving spirit, operating from Barḳa as a base. Along with him a number of other leaders are mentioned, who undertook small excursions against various Berber tribes and against such towns as the ancient Lepta (660-663). All details are dubious; of the subsequent period too our knowledge is but scanty. Probably after the death of 'Amr Africa was entrusted, at all events temporarily, as a separate province to Mu'āwiya ibn Ḥudaij, the head of Mu'āwiya's Egyptian party in his fight against Othman; this man was sent out directly by the Caliph with a considerable army against the united Byzantines and Berbers, and defeated them. The fortress of Jalulā was taken by him. Mu'āwiya's expedition was in conjunction with a diversion of the fleet against Sicily, of which more remains to be said. This event may be dated with tolerable accuracy as having occurred in the year 664.