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656-658] carried the day. The recollection however of the brief political splendour of 'Irāḳ formed the basis for a movement which was destined to gain strength, which a century later swept away the rule of the Umayyads. Once more was the capital of the latest Asiatic world-power transferred to Babylon.

After the Camel battle Ali's position was thoroughly favourable, as Mu'āwiya could not take any energetic steps against him so long as Egypt remained on Ali's side. Mu'āwiya main attention was therefore fixed on Egypt; and in this view he was aided and abetted by 'Amr, the first conqueror of Egypt, who had allied himself with Mu'āwiya in the hope of attaining through him the governorship of Egypt. For that reason he rendered Mu'āwiya most important services in the war against Ali, and as Ali at this juncture advanced against Mu'āwiya a battle extending over several days ensued, after long delay, at Ṣiffīn on the Syrian border, not far distant from Raḳḳa (26-27 July 657). Ali's victory appeared certain, when 'Amr conceived the idea of fastening copies of the Koran to the points of the lances and calling on the holy book for a decision. This trick succeeded, and much against his will Ali was forced to yield to the pressure of the pious members of his army. A court of arbitration was thereupon agreed on. Mu'āwiya confidential representative was of course 'Amr, whilst Ali had forced upon him in a like capacity Mūsā al-Ash'arī, a man by no means thoroughly devoted to him. They had scarcely parted when those same pious members of his army altered their views, and now blamed Ali for having placed men, instead of God and the sword, as judges over him. Several thousand men separated from Ali and entered into a separate camp at Ḥarūrā, whence they were called Ḥarūrites, or secessionists, Khārijites. They resisted Ali by force, and he was compelled to cut down most of them at Nahrawān (7 July 658). Later on they split into innumerable small sects and still gave much trouble to Ali and the Umayyads. The sense of independence and the robber-knight ideas of the ancient Arabians lived. still in them, but under a religious cloak. Offshoots from these people, the so-called Ibāḍites, exist even to-day in South Arabia and in East and North Africa.

The information we have as to the result of the court of arbitration is untrustworthy. In any case the clever 'Amr outwitted his coadjudicator by persuading him also to deal with Ali and Mu'āwiya as being on the same footing, whilst of course Ali was the only one who had a Caliphate to lose. Ali appears actually to have been divested of this dignity by decree of the arbitration, but this decision did not induce him to abdicate. This arbitration court was held at Adhruḥ in the year 658. Even more painful for Ali than this failure was the loss of Egypt, which 'Amr shortly afterwards reconquered for himself, and administered until his death more as a viceroy than a governor. No definite decision was brought about between Ali and Mu'āwiya, as their forces were about equally