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632] which reason the more civilised Muslim nations are obliged to have a civil Calendar, consisting of Persian, Syrian or Coptic months, as the case may be, in addition to the sacred Calendar.

Soon after his return to Medina, Mahomet made preparations for another campaign against the Byzantines, but before the expedition had started he was seized with fever and expired, in the arms of 'Ā'isha, on Monday, 7 June 632. Of his last utterances there are various accounts, many of which are obvious fabrications designed to support the claims of rival candidates for the Caliphate. That he ever appointed a successor is highly improbable.

It would be vain to attempt an enumeration of the conflicting judgments which have been passed on his character and his work, not only by fanatical devotees and opponents but even by scientific historians. The immense majority of the attacks published in Europe may be safely ignored, since they were made at a time when the most trustworthy sources of information had not yet come to light. During the last two or three generations more favourable estimates have been formed, but it would be a grave mistake to suppose that even at the present day there is anything like a consensus of opinion on this subject among those who are most qualified to judge. One of the greatest Orientalists that ever lived has recently stated that having, in his younger days, planned a work on the history of the early Muslim Empire he was finally deterred from carrying out the scheme by his inability to offer any satisfactory account of the Prophet's character. This example should suffice to inspire diffidence.

In discussing the subject there are two opposite dangers which we must constantly strive to avoid. On the one hand, we should beware of assuming that Mahomet's doctrine and policy were determined solely by his own personal qualities. Much that strikes us as peculiar in his preaching may in reality be due to his Jewish or Christian informants. It is likewise clear that the spread of his religion was largely governed by factors over which he had no control. All the evidence tends to shew that during the first few years of his propaganda he never dreamt of acquiring political power. He strove, it is true, to convert Mecca as a whole, and not merely a few individuals, to the true faith; but this was not in view of an earthly kingdom — it was in view of the impending Day of Judgment. Even when at length circumstances placed him in the position of a ruler his authority rested much more on the voluntary co-operation of his followers than on any material resources that were at his command. It has often been suggested in recent times that the religious movement of which Mahomet was the head coincided with a great national movement on the part of the Arabs who, it is said, had