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 NOTES AND ABSTRACTS 287

organize itself as a homogeneous force with tlie purpose of establishing a new eco- nomic order, are manifest in many ways.

Communism is the alpha and omega of socialism. It is the doctrine which is most easily comprehended among its advocates. In 1848 communism was very much in favor among the workmen of Paris and Lyons.

About 1864, articles 414 to 416 of the penal code were modified to allow labor associations; and it was shortly before this that the international labor movement was started. The effort was for the enfranchisement of the workmen by the workmen themselves. In iS6g and 1870 the International began to have considerable influ- ence both in political action and in propagandist theories.

Since the labor congress of Paris in 1876, that of Lyons in 1878, and that of Marseilles in 1879, a new aspect of the movement appears, viz., a struggle of the workmen for moral autonomy. The members of the proletariat were becoming more conscious of their interests and of the whole social situation.

III.

Today those who think that the socialists are concerned wholly with state action deceive themselves. The socialists believe also in the possibility of establishing a new general social order arising directly from their deliberations, which will be of a different character and have different powers from the actual state, and which will succeed it naturally at a given time. The truth is that through all the proletariat the idea of a general social reform is spreading, and finding representatives (i) in the syndicates, (2) in the parties organized for propagandist and electioneering purposes, and (3) in an unorganized party which makes itself felt only at times of elections.

At the socialist meetings and special conventions are discussed today, with con- siderable amity and tolerance, such questions as the remedy for involuntary idleness, the means for assuring work for all, for securing the eight-hour day, the right of association and of labor insurance, and for establishing a minimum living wage. And these questions represent not merely differences between workmen and employ- ers, but social facts which interest and disquiet the whole world.

IV.

The socialist parties organized at Paris and in the province for propagandist and electoral purposes have modified, to any considerable extent, only their general spirit and the direction of their forces. These parties are four m number:

1. The French Labor Party, called somewhat erroneously "collectivist," inspired by Karl Marx and led by M. Jules Guesde and .M. Paul Lafargue.

2. The Revolutionary Socialist Labor Party, which openly declares itself com- munistic, and considers political action only a propagandist means. This party is led by M. AUemane.

3. The Federation of Socialist Workmen of France, which professes the same principles as the Revolutionary Socialist Labor Party, but which hopes to gain through political action certain reforms, looking toward the performance, by the state or by the commune, of all the great public services.

4. The Revolutionary Socialist Party, which has taken the name recently, and consists of groups which rally around the Central Revolutionary Committee. They are inspired by the communistic spirit, disdaining to analyze economic facts and make theoretic definitions, but are rather an extreme republican than a strictly social- istic party. They are led by M. Blanqui and M. Vaillant.

V.

These various factions fight each other vigorously, though, perhaps, not so stupidly as did the former groups at the beginning of the movement. Each considers itself orthodox and the others as schismatic. A superficial movement toward union, having its center in Parliament rather than in the parties, and called the Socialist Union, has thus far proved somewhat abortive. But in June, 1898, the Revolutionary Socialist