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 480 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

ally exact better terms make concessions for the benefit of their class. The unionists >n a standard piecework rate, rather than a definite sum per hour, and therefore the income of the good workman far exceeds that of the poor one. The piecework rates of iron and steel workers, miners, and cotton operatives govern a third of the trade-union members of England, while tailors, shoemakers, compositors, coopers, basket makers, aud many other trades have had schedules of piecework rates since the beginning of this century. In such cases the actual earnings of workmen cannot be equalized. Where a standard wage per hour prevails, as in bricklaying, plumbing, etc., the superior workman receives higher pay and is employed on the more particular work. The best carpenters, when not getting special rates for staircasing, etc., are employed on finer work in the shop, while the rougher workmen have to do the heavier mechanical tasks. The greater freedom from exposure, and employment on work of a diversified character, affording scope for individual initiative, constitute a real advan- tage. Yet the conviction among unionists that the slow, industrious mechanic deserves as much as his quicker fellow has led to serious objections to piecework. In Great Britain 49 unions with 573,000 members insist on piecework; 24 unions with 140,000 members willingly recognize both piece and time work ; 38 unions with 290,000 members insist on time work. Unskilled laborers and transport workers are omitted from this enumeration. The most powerful unions are among trades of the first and second class. Among the third class, building trades always denounce piece- work. By "speeding up " machinery, the work placed upon the cotton spinner may be steadily increased ; hence the necessity of piece rates. Also, when improvements are made, decreasing the labor of workmen, the onus of decreasing their pay falls on the employer. But where the work of a skilled mechanic differs from job to job, as in a machine shop, the introduction of piecework implies a reversion to individual bargaining, when the price would be dictated by the employer. If an expert workman earns more than his neighbor, a reduction will then be made, until only the most expert is able to earn a bare living. Where piecework of this sort is permitted by the strong unions, it is provided that a standard time-rate shall be paid every workman, regard- less of the amount done. Where both systems are willingly accepted, as by com- positors, it is because, while some difference of work is found, the piecework is not inconsistent with collective bargaining, and where the workman cannot be speeded up by the foreman. Only where the system has been adapted to the nature of the work has collective bargaining survived. The objection to arbitrary fines and " truck " are based on a desire to maintain the standard rate. A fundamental article of trade-union faith is that it is impossible to prevent the degradation of the standard of life unless the conditions of labor are settled by a common standard. SIDNEY and BEATRICE WEBB, The Economic Journal, September 1896.

The Man and the Machine : A Plea for Industrial Education. During the last century our struggle has been to displace the man by the machine. Productive power has increased more than a thousandfold, and just now it seems that electricity is going to cause another great introduction of new machinery. With this increase in productive power the factor of individual capacity has decreased, and " every mechan- ical advance tends to further subordinate the individuality of the operative." The laborer has in many cases become a " machine-tender " instead of a master of his machine. But still it must be said with this individuality destroyed the laborer is far stronger and far better off than his ancestors. With greater material progress, education has become more general and new wants have been created and are being satisfied. But there is another side to this question. While many have lost their individuality and become " wheels in the industrial system," there is at the same time the greatest opportunity for the skilled mechanic. Intelligence now has its greatest opportunity. He says, " If the physical man sinks into nothingness beside the power of the machine, the brain of man has gained reinforcement akin to omnipotence." And the opportunity is going to be still greater. We have busied ourselves in producing a large quantity of goods. In the future it is the better quality that is going to be required. The artistic element is going to enter more and more into production. That we as a nation shall be able to develop along this line, and that more laborers shall be able to put their individuality into their