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 1 72 THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY

of government, of political economy, of the relation of public to private assistance, and of administrative law are involved, and the debate is a battle of opposing tendencies and schools of thought. The objections to public poor-relief familiar to Malthus and Chalmers were urged to prevent the passage of the law of 1893, and they are repeated in 1905; but in vain. Both friends and foes of this particular bill agree that its success will lead to further extension of state action, and that some form of com- pulsory workingmen's insurance will logically follow. Probably many conservatives would be willing to accept this measure for relief of the poor, if they did not fear that similar laws will push in while the door stands ajar. The time to call a halt was in 1893; for the obligation to afford medical relief necessarily involved some degree of aid for the aged, the incurable, and the infirm. It has been found in practice simply impossible to dis- tinguish dependent persons of these categories. Old age is liable to disease, and to diseases which place the person in a condition where he is unable to work for his own support. The Superior Council of Public Assistance stated the result of experience in this language : " Public assistance is due to those who, temporarily or permanently, find themselves in a situation where they cannot provide for themselves the necessities of life." The International Congress of Public and Private Assistance in 1889 passed a resolution to the same effect.

Since 1893 some tentative steps have been taken to provide for the aged who are indigent. 6 In the law of March 27, 1897, the state bound itself to give subsidies wherever the communes and departments voluntarily took the initiative in providing pen- sions for the indigent aged and infirm. This law was not altogether a failure. In 1897 the number of departments which acted on the law was fourteen ; in 1901 this number had increased to fifty-two. The subsidy contributed by the state rose from 13,041 francs in 1897 to 273,181.47 francs in 1902. This shows a certain degree of progress, and the opponents of obligatory

""Articles des lois de finances de 1897 et 1902 sur la participation de 1'Etat aux pensions constitutes en faveur des vieillards, des infirmes et des incurables pauvres."