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 VII

upon the effect of the British war and the advantages secured by the treaties of China of 1842 and 1844 with Great Britain, the United States, and France, the Western nations looked hopefully forward to an era of friendly intercourse with the imperial government and one of great commercial prosperity. But they were destined to serious disappointment. Notwithstanding past experience they had failed to estimate properly the conservatism and arrogance of the Chinese.

Supported by a continuous history of several thousands of years, during which they had developed a high state of civilization, the Chinese felt that they had nothing to learn from the barbarian nations. Their recent intercourse with them led to the belief that the latter were influenced by mercenary and hostile motives, and that an increase of this intercourse would bring only evil results for their nation. They regarded theirs as the Middle Kingdom and all the outlying nations of the world as vassal and tributary to their celestial emperor. Although the superior military power of the Western nations had been demonstrated at Canton and a few other places on the coast, it had hardly pierced the outer rim of the vast empire, and