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 powell] TECHNOLOGY, OR THE SCIENCE OF INDUSTRIES 345

have found it myself among many of the Shoshonean tribes, which occupy a large area in the western portion of the United States ; I have found it among the Wintun of California and many other tribes of the Pacific slope ; I have found it also among the tribes of the Gulf states, and have never failed to find instances in any tribe among whom I have made diligent inquiry. Such causes for disease, however abundant they may be, must not be considered to be universal as they appear to the savage mind. The tribes of America rather seem to prefer to ascribe their evils to their ene- mies within the tribe, or still more often to their enemies in other tribes, when of course they believe in witchcraft. Especially are epidemics imputed to hostile tribes. The theory of the action of their enemies seems to be somewhat of this nature : that the shamans of the enemies have control over disease ghosts. But enough of this phase of the matter here.

In barbarism, which is the upper stage of tribal society, the theory of disease undergoes marked development ; not that im- putation is abandoned, not that ghosts play a less important role, but that a new group of mythologic beings is developed. These mystic personages are personified phenomena of nature which exist as divine personages, partaking in the affairs of mankind. While the hosts of savage mythology still exist in the popular mind, the leaders lay more stress on the doings of these nature gods. The nature gods are not supposed to be pure spirits, and to have a celestial home where they habitually dwell and where they are organized into a tribe of their own. Now, the same character- istics of imputation are found, the same ghost theory prevails ; but in addition there appear a host of nature ghosts which also take part in the affairs of mankind by assuming the shapes of men and representing them on earth. These new deities play a special role in producing diseases among mankind, and their assistance is invoked to prevent and cure disease.

In a higher stage of culture, when tribes are organized as feudal dependencies about city governments which are ruled by

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